Food insecurity and
food assistance program
participation in the U.S.:
One year into the
COVID-19 pandemic

Francesco Acciai 1, Ashley C. McCarthy 2, Kaitlyn Harper 3,
Anna Josephson 4, Emily H. Belarmino 2, Meredith T. Niles 2,
Farryl Bertmann 2, Erin Biehl 3, Robin DeWeese1,
Sarah Martinelli1, Roni Neff 3, Punam Ohri-Vachaspati1
1 College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University
2 Department of Nutrition & Food Sciences, Food Systems Program, University of Vermont
3 Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
4 Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Arizona

Introduction

Key Findings

Beginning in March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic
triggered a sudden and severe economic downturn
and led to disruptions in domestic and international
food systems and supply chains. Over the first few
months of the pandemic, in the United States, many
stores had empty shelves, bars and restaurants
closed, and children could no longer go to school.
The unemployment rate increased from 3.5% in
February 2020 to 14.8% in April 2020,1 leading to
economic instability for many households. As a result,
household food insecurity, defined as having limited or
inconsistent access to nutritious and affordable food,
increased rapidly.2,3

• One year into the pandemic, the prevalence
of food insecurity in the U.S. continued to be
high, with 30% of households experiencing
food insecurity during the first four months of
2021. This represents a 30% increase from prepandemic rates (23%) among households within
our sample.

During the first months of 2021, vaccinations began
rolling out, more individuals returned to in-person
work, children to schools, and restrictions were
gradually phased out. Unemployment has decreased
since the April 2020 peak to 5.4% in July 2021, but
remains above pre-pandemic levels. This brief describes
the prevalence of household food insecurity, job
disruptions, and food-related behaviors as reported by
a nationally representative sample of 1,643 U.S. adults,
both in the year prior to the COVID-19 pandemic
(March 2019 – March 2020) and during the first
four months of 2021 ( January – April 2021), a period
representing approximately one year since the onset of
the pandemic.

Food Insecurity

We measured food insecurity using the U.S.
Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) six-item
short form of the Food Security Survey Module.4
Respondents were asked six yes/no questions about
1

• Almost four in ten households in our sample
experienced a job disruption after March 2020.
For these households, food insecurity was almost
three times higher (49%) than for households not
experiencing any job disruption (17%).
• Despite the increased prevalence in food
insecurity, our survey respondents reported
participating in federal food assistance programs
in early 2021 at rates similar to those reported
for the period prior to the pandemic.
• Even with the ongoing economic recovery, the
main food-related concern for both food secure
and food insecure households was still the cost
of food. The magnitude of all food-related
concerns was almost twice as high among food
insecure households compared to those who
reported being food secure.

food availability and affordability for their households.
Respondents (and their households) were classified
as food insecure if they responded affirmatively to
2 or more of those questions.4 The same set of food
insecurity questions was asked for the 12 months prior
to the start of the pandemic (March 2019 – March
2020) and for the first four months of 2021.
August 2021

Food insecurity and food assistance program participation in the U.S.: One year into the COVID-19 pandemic

Figure 1: Food insecurity rates by household type

Note: Households with at least one child (0-18 years-old) were
classified as ‘households with children.’ Among households
without children, we distinguished between ‘adult-only
households’ if all members were between 19 and 64 years of age,
and ‘households with older adults if at least one member was 65
or older.

• In our sample, food insecurity increased from 23%
over the 12 months prior to the pandemic to 30% in
the first four months of 2021 (Figure 1).
• Households with children experienced food
insecurity at much higher rates at both time points,
and this disparity was exacerbated one year into the
pandemic when 43% of households with children
reported being food insecure (Figure 1).
• Households with older adults experienced a smaller
increase in food insecurity than did other types
of households (Figure 1).

Job Disruptions
The economy suffered greatly as a result of COVID19-related closures and restrictions, and unemployment
claims reached record-high levels. Despite a remarkable
recovery started in the second half of 2020, the
unemployment rate, almost a year into the pandemic,
was still higher than it was prior to the pandemic.
Respondents were asked to indicate whether they or
anyone in their household experienced any type of
job disruption (defined as having lost their job, having
their hours or income reduced, being furloughed) since
March 2020. Respondents who answered “yes” were
also asked to indicate which type(s) of job disruption
their household had experienced.
Figure 2: Changes in employment status since the
onset of the pandemic (March 2020)

2

• Nearly four out of ten households experienced a job
disruption at some point after the pandemic’s onset
in March 2020, with reduction in hours or income
(23%) most common, followed by job loss (13%), and
being furloughed (6%) (Figure 2).
Figure 3: Households’ food insecurity rates during
the first four months of 2021 by quarantine and job
disruption status

• Over the first months of 2021, food insecurity was
much more prevalent (49%) among households that
experienced a job disruption than it was among
households who did not experience a job disruption
(17%) (Figure 3).
• Similarly, households with at least one member who
had to quarantine (at some point after the onset of
the pandemic) were more likely to experience
food insecurity during the first four months of 2021
than households where no one had to quarantine
(Figure 3).
Fig 4: Food insecurity during the first four months of
2021 by job disruption for different household types

See note under Figure 1.

• Experiencing a job disruption was associated
with a higher prevalence of food insecurity for all
household types, especially in households with
children (Figure 4).
It is also important to note that the rate of job
disruptions differed across household types. Nearly half
of households with children (49%) experienced a job
disruption compared to 43% of adult-only households
(all members between 19 and 64 years of age) and 21%
of households with at least one member 65 or older
(Data not shown).

August 2021

Food insecurity and food assistance program participation in the U.S.: One year into the COVID-19 pandemic

Food Assistance Program
Participation
Respondents were asked about their household’s
participation in SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition
Assistance Program), WIC (Special Supplemental
Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children),
school meals, food pantries, P-EBT (Pandemic
Electronic Benefits Transfer), or any other program
both during the year prior to the pandemic and
during the first four months of 2021 ( January – April
2021). These USDA food and nutrition assistance
programs are designed to provide a safety net for
individuals and families in need. In response to the
pandemic, USDA offered a variety of program waivers
to facilitate participation in food safety net programs
and to enhance benefits. Despite these changes, and
the high prevalence of job disruptions and increased
food insecurity during the pandemic, self-reported
participation in any major federal food assistance
program remained relatively unchanged, though some
differences were observed for certain programs and
household types.

• Overall, SNAP participation remained unchanged,
WIC and school meal participation declined slightly, and food pantry use increased in the first four
months of 2021 compared to the year prior to
COVID-19 (Figure 5).
• For low-income households, participation in SNAP
was higher during the first four months of 2021
(35%) compared to the year prior to COVID-19
(31%), but WIC participation showed opposite trends
(Figure 5).
• Notably, SNAP participation decreased for
households with children (from 30% to 27%) in
the first four months of 2021 compared to the year
prior to COVID-19. Similar downward trends were
reported for WIC participation (22% vs 18%)
(Figure 5).
• While fewer food insecure households reported
participating in SNAP and school meals in the first
four months of 2021 compared to the year prior to
COVID-19, WIC and food pantry use remained
unchanged among these households (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Households’ participation in select food assistance programs by food security status and household
demographics

Note: Households with children were those households with at least one child (0-18 years-old). Households fall under the ‘low-income’
category if their 2019 annual income was $50,000 or less.

The food pantry has come in handy
during this difficult time.
—40-year-old non-Hispanic Black female from MD

3

We have about three stores in town that sell
WIC approved items, and since the pandemic
happened, those items become scarce.
—30-year-old non-Hispanic White female from AZ
August 2021

Food insecurity and food assistance program participation in the U.S.: One year into the COVID-19 pandemic

P-EBT Participation
In April 2020 states began providing a novel benefit
called P-EBT (Pandemic Electronic Benefits Transfer)
to households whose children were eligible for freeand reduced-price school meals or attended a school
that, prior to the pandemic, offered subsidized meals
to all students. The program aimed to cover the cost
of school meals while schools transitioned fully or
partly to a remote learning model. As of August 2020,
all states were approved to provide P-EBT benefits
to qualifying households. In January 2021, P-EBT
benefits were increased by 15% and expanded to
include eligible childcare facilities. Overall, in the first
four months of 2021, 23% of eligible households with
children in our sample reported using P-EBT.

food insecurity expressed higher levels of concern
about food access compared to food secure
respondents (Figure 6).
Figure 7: Proportion of households reporting use
of different food sources before and during the
COVID-19 pandemic

Food Sources and Worries

In the first four months of 2021, almost a year into the
pandemic, many respondents still reported significant
concerns about food access and availability, both for
their own households and for the broader community.
Figure 6: Households’ level of food-related concerns
one year into the pandemic ( January – April 2021)

• Household shifted where they obtained food in the
first four months of 2021 compared to the year prior
to the COVID-19 pandemic (Figure 7).
• Grocery delivery increased substantially for
food secure respondents but declined for those
experiencing food insecurity (Figure 7).
• Food insecure respondents were more likely to
obtain food from convenience stores or free meal
programs than were food secure respondents
(Figure 7).

Implications
NOTE: For each item, respondents were asked to quantify their
level of concern on a scale ranging from 1 (not worried at all) to 6
(extremely worried).

• Both food insecure and food secure respondents were
most concerned about food becoming more expensive (Figure 6).
• Food insecure respondents also expressed high levels
of concern about their household not having enough
food if they have to stay home and about losing so
much income that they can’t afford food (Figure 6).
• Across all indicators, respondents who experienced
4

• Food insecurity rates increased considerably during
the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic,2 and
one year later the rates were still higher than they
were in the year prior to the onset of the pandemic.
Despite this increase in food insecurity, we did not
see a commensurate increase in food assistance
program participation during the first months of the
pandemic6 or one year into the pandemic.
• As the most vulnerable households faced multiple
challenges during COVID-19, USDA offered
implementation waivers that were designed to
facilitate program participation. Enhanced benefits,
flexibility in program enrollment and recertification,
and delivery innovations may have contributed
to stabilizing participation close to pre-pandemic
August 2021

Food insecurity and food assistance program participation in the U.S.: One year into the COVID-19 pandemic

levels, after a drop in self-reported participation rates
observed immediately following the onset of
the pandemic.6
• Households that started experiencing food insecurity
during the pandemic likely encountered unique
challenges to food assistance program participation.
For example, the lack of familiarity in navigating the
bureaucracy of food assistance programs or using
new technology may have been compounded by
having to deal with pandemic-specific challenges,
such as closures, restrictions, etc. Future work should
identify challenges to participation and explore
the uptake, implementation, and impact of various
USDA waivers.

Survey Approach
The survey instrument used for the current study is publicly
available.5 We surveyed 1,967 US adults in April-May 2021 using
Qualtrics online panels. The current brief reports results based on
1,643 respondents with complete data on all variables used in the
analysis. The survey participants reflect the U.S. adult population
by race and ethnicity. We oversampled respondents from lower
income households (2019 annual income less than $50,000), then
adjusted so that analyses reflect the national income, race, and
ethnicity distribution in 2019, based on the American Community
Survey 5-year estimates. Limitations of surveys like the current
one may include underrepresentation of groups such as those: with
low literacy or unable to take surveys in English/Spanish, without
cell phone or internet, facing high pandemic demands, and with
low trust of surveys. Selection of tech-savvy individuals might be
even more relevant for older adults (age 65+), as use of internet
is less prevalent among this demographic group. Additionally,
responses may be influenced by factors such as social desirability,
recall bias, misunderstanding, or rushing to complete.
The period from March 2019 to March 10, 2020 was referred to
as ‘prior to the pandemic,’ while the period including the fi rst four
months of 2021 ( January – April) aims at capturing respondents’
experiences approximately one year into the pandemic.
A series of briefs from this research are available at asufoodpolicy.
org and nfactresearch.org.

Funding Statement
This research was supported by the College of Health Solutions,
Arizona State University with support from the college
COVID-19 seed grant and the university Investigator Research
Funds; the University of Arizona College of Agriculture and
Life Sciences Rapid COVID-19 seed grant; a Directed Research
grant from the Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future; and
from the University of Vermont, the College of Agriculture and
Life Sciences, the Gund Institute for Environment, Office of the
Vice President of Research, and the UVM ARS Food Systems

5

Research Center. The funding entities had no role in the study
design or analysis.

About NFACT
This research is conducted as part of The National Food Access
and COVID research Team (NFACT), which is implementing
common measurements and tools across study sites in the U.S.
NFACT is a national collaboration of researchers committed to
rigorous, comparative, and timely food access research during
the time of COVID. We do this through collaborative, open
access research that prioritizes communication to key decisionmakers while building our scientific understanding of food system
behaviors and policies. To learn more visit nfactresearch.org. or
contact Dr. Meredith Niles at mtniles@uvm.edu.

References
1. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Civilian unemployment rate.
https://www.bls.gov/charts/employment-situation/civilianunemployment-rate.htm. Accessed July 2, 2021.
2. Harper K, Acciai F, Josephson A, Bertmann F, Ohri-Vachaspati
P, Belarmino EH, Robinson J, Niles M, Neff R. Experiences of
households with new and persistent food insecurity during the fi rst
four months of the COVID-19 pandemic. Johns Hopkins
Bloomberg School of Public Health. December 2020. https://
jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/handle/1774.2/63252
3. Acciai F, Belarmino EH, Josephson A, Niles M. Changes in
Employment Status and Food Security among U.S. households
during the fi rst four months of the COVID-19 pandemic. College
of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, December 2020.
https://keep.lib.asu.edu/items/245
4. U.S. Department of Agriculture. ERS - U.S. Household Food
Security Survey Module: Six-item short form United States
Department of Agriculture; 2012. https://www.ers.usda.gov/
topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-us/surveytools/#six
5. Niles M, Neff R, Biehl E, Bertmann F, Belarmino EH, Acciai F,
Ohri-Vachaspati P. “Food Access and Food Security During
COVID-19 Survey- Version 2.1”, https://doi.org/10.7910/
DVN/4KY9XZ, Harvard Dataverse, V3. 2020.
6. Ohri-Vachaspati P, Acciai F, Martinelli S, Harper K, Bertmann
F, Belarmino EH, Neff R, Niles M. Food Assistance Program
Participation among US Households during the COVID-19
Pandemic. College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University,
December 2020.

August 2021