“They say we are Criminals”:
The Stress, Fears, and Hopes
of Migrant Dairy Workers
as a Result of US Immigration Policies
DAVID BECERRA

Farm Workers
in America
There are
approximately 3
million seasonal and
migrant farm workers
in the United States
(US) (National Center
for Farmworker
Health, 2012). Over
the recent years, there
has been a slight
decline in the number
of undocumented
immigrants, however,
they make up nearly
47 percent of the
estimated 2.4 million
farmworkers
(Photo: Andrew Nelles / The Tennessean)
Source: (Craig Walker, 2017)
(Hernandez, Gabbard,
Carrol, 2016).
Migrant dairy workers are an increasingly
Accounting for ranging estimates, the
vulnerable population due to their hazardous
number of undocumented farm
working conditions, and more recently, the
workers somewhere from 1.1-1.7
increase in anti-immigration policies,
million farmworkers (U.S.
enforcement strategies, and deportations.
Department of Labor’s National
Agricultural Worker’s Survey,2016).
Immigrant workers, regardless of
The purpose of this study was to better
legal status, are a driving force in
understand how this already vulnerable population was
both the migrant and seasonal farm
impacted by the increase in restrictive immigration
workers. This includes meat
policies and immigration enforcement by examining
processing facilities, crop production,
the existing literature about the health and wellbeing
and dairy production (Andock,
of migrant dairy workers, the current anti- immigrant
Anderson, Rosson, 2015).
climate, and the experiences and perceptions of
migrant dairy workers.

The hazardous work
environment of a US
dairy worker makes
agricultural and dairy
work, among the most
dangerous
occupations.
Undocumented
immigrants are
looked at negatively,
since they are
wrongly perceived as
a cost and burden to
the United States.
Even though both
state and local
governments often
collect more in tax
revenues than what is
spent providing
services for
undocumented
immigrants, the false
narrative that
undocumented
immigrants are
costing the US money,
is pushed to create
tough immigration
laws.

In dairy farms, more than half of the workers are immigrants
(CNAS, 2015). The exact numbers are 76,968 workers of 150,418
(CNAS, 2015). Without immigrant workers in this field, studies
have found that the price of milk would go up by 90 percent,
exemplifying how important the contribution of migrant dairy
workers is to the US economy and labor force (Becerra, 2019;
CNAS,2015). Despite the increase in anti-immigrant sentiment,
policies, and the fact that most migrant diary workers are
immigrants, few studies have been conducted regarding how antiimmigrant policies impact immigrant dairy workers (Baker &
Chappelle, 2012; Harrison & Lloyd, 2012).
The hazardous work environment of a US dairy worker makes
agricultural and dairy work, among the most dangerous occupations.
The risks associated with dairy work include, being kicked or
crushed by cattle, but also skin complications, strains, sprains, and
other musculoskeletal issues Baker & Chappelle, 2012; Kandel,
2008; McCurdy & Carroll,2000), as well as asthma and bronchitis as
a result of breathing the organic dust from animal feed (May, 2009).
In addition, migrant dairy workers are at risk for mental health
issues (Becerra, 2019). Increased levels of depression and anxiety
attributed to inadequate housing, language barriers, decrease in
social-networks, and isolation that can accompany being a migrant
worker was also discovered in past studies (Grzywacz, 2009).
The undocumented status of some dairy workers, although a civil
offense, comes with stressors due to immigration enforcement and
criminalization (Harrison & Lloyd, 2012). On top of the physical
health conditions previously mentioned , mental health issues like
depression and anxiety are an added challenge undocumented
migrant workers face (Harrison & Lloyd, 2012). Undocumented
immigrants are looked at negatively, since they are wrongly
perceived as a cost and burden to the United States. Even though
both state and local governments often collect more in tax revenues
than what is spent providing services for undocumented immigrants,
the false narrative that undocumented immigrants are costing the US
money, is pushed to create tough immigration laws (Becerra, 2019).
Which contributes to an anti-immigration sentiment.
In the past, being a migrant worker entailed being able to migrate
legally in and out of the US yearly, depending on the harvesting
seasons. For those who were doing it without documentation, it was
a lot easier to go back and forth through the Southern border. Now,
with the militarized Mexican American border, migrant workers are
choosing to stay in America, rather than risk not being able to return
to the US to work the next harvest season. Instead of returning to
their families back home, migrant workers bring their
families to the US. Unfortunately, undocumented migrant
families living in the US face emotional stressors due to
the continuous threat of family separation, deportation,
and being detected. These threats can also drive
undocumented migrant workers to isolate further to avoid
detection and deportation.

Current anti-immigrant policies along with anti-immigration sentiment
directly impact migrant dairy workers, especially those migrant dairy
workers who are undocumented. With the growing perceived
discrimination among Latino’s combined with the knowledge that
discrimination and its correlation with poor physical and mental health;
make it a necessity to examine risk and protective factors related to
restrictive immigration policies and enforcement impact migrant dairy
workers (Araújo & Borrell, 2006; Pulido, 2007; Lassetter & Callister,
2009; Pascoe & Smart Richman, 2009; Williams & Mohammed,
2009) .

The
Participants
The data for this study
were collected in two
separate dairies in
Northern Colorado
during the fall of 2010.
The sample consisted
of 14 individuals, of
those 3 were women.
Participants’ ages
ranged from 22 to 30,
the mean age was 33.
There was one participant from Honduras,

one from Guatemala,
Source: (Coburn Dukehart, 2017)

Measures

Following institutional review board (IRB) approval, participants were
recruited from two dairies in Northern Colorado in the fall of 2010.
Potential participants were informed of the purpose of the study verbally
and in writing regarding confidentiality, that participation was
completely voluntary, and that they could choose to stop the interviews at
any time. Once the supervisors at the dairy sites approved the research,
participants volunteered to partake in an in-depth interview at the dairy
sites. The participants filled out on a short demographic questionnaire.
All interviews were conducted in Spanish and took about an hour. The
interviews were recorded and transcribed. A research team of three,
analyzed and transcribed the interviews.

Analysis

and the remaining 12
were from Mexico.
The mean length of
time living in the US
was 7.5 years. Participants reported an
income ranging from
$10,000 to $29,000.

The interviews were recorded and then transcribed in Spanish for analysis. The interview data was coded for
analysis using open coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).The team reached a consensus of coding schemes, categories, and themes. Coding of the interview entailed four different parts. (1) Discovering, identifying, and labeling
distinct activities or ideas; (2) Creating categories of identified activities or ideas and then grouping concepts that
represent the same or similar phenomena; (3) naming or labeling the created categories; and, (4) developing the
properties, dimensions, conditions, and characteristics which constitute the identified categories.

Perceived
Discrimination

“[The laws are] very bad,
very racist because they
say that we are criminals. I
believe that there are
undocumented Hispanics
that are criminals but
that’s not all of us. And
well they say that
everyone, and well there
are exceptions, but we
dedicate ourselves solely
to work, not being out in
the street, and the kids to
school. My son goes to
school and home, and in
the evening, he goes out
with us to get groceries, or
like I told you out to eat
somewhere, or to visit
some friend, but he always
goes with us. And so then
when you hear that we’re
all delinquents well no, I
don’t think it’s fair.”

Stress
“When one comes to work at
night one is stressed.
Because you’re coming at
night and it’s full of police
and I don’t know. So, then
you have to come, even if
you’re watching your speed,
even if you’re guarding your
distance, even if you’re
driving well you’re stressed
because at any moment you
can get detained.”

Findings
After examining how migrant dairy workers were impacted by
restrictive immigration policies and increased immigration, the
major categories developed by the research team, after
examining how migrant dairy workers were impacted by
restrictive immigration policies and increased immigration
enforcement were 1) fear, 2) stress, 3) perceptions of
discrimination. In addition, a major category emerged which
demonstrated the hope and resilience of participants in the face
of an increasingly difficult socio-political environment. The
hope and resilience was reported despite the persistent daily fear
of police and being deported back to their home counties.
Feelings of stress and anxiety were reported, given the antiimmigrant prevalence that was present in the US at the time the
interview was conducted. This finding supports other studies
that found stress and anxiety to be produced when fear of
deportation and enforced immigration policies coexist. The
participants felt that the immigration legislation across the
country, represented anti-immigrant sentiments in the US and
the discrimination of Latino immigrants. Despite the
environment and the anti-immigrant sentiment of the country,
participants were hopeful for themselves or their families.

Fear
The migrant’s fear of deportation of loves ones or themselves stems
from immigrations policies and their enforcement (Pew Hispanic
Center, 2010). A participant in the study demonstrated his daily and
constant fear of deportation: Participant 7: I would just see a
policeman and I would hide because I thought that he was coming for
me. Right now, what I am seeing for example is very ugly with the
families where they take away the mom or they take away the dad,
and they leave the children here.

Stress

Knowing that being apprehended, detained, and deported at any given
time does create a sense of anxiety and stress among the participants
interviewed. Participant 1: When one comes to work at night one is
stressed. Because you’re coming at night and it’s full of police and I
don’t know. So, then you have to come, even if you’re watching your
speed, even if you’re guarding your distance, even if you’re driving
well you’re stressed because at any moment you can get detained.

Perceived Discrimination

It is no secret to the participants that the new immigration legislation
are a representation of the anti-immigrant sentiments in the country.
Participant 8: [The laws are] very bad, very racist because they say
that we are criminals. I believe that there are undocumented
Hispanics that are criminals but that’s not all of us. And well they say
that everyone, and well there are exceptions, but we dedicate
ourselves solely to work, not being out in the street, and the kids to
school. My son goes to school and home, and in the evening, he goes
out with us to get groceries, or like I told you out to eat somewhere,
or to visit some friend, but he always goes with us. And so then when
you hear that we’re all delinquents well no, I don’t think it’s fair.

Hope and Resiliency
Participants discussed strategies to cope with the fear and anxiety anti-immigration policies
have created. Participant 13: With my daughter and my wife I go to a park that’s near my
house. And I get out to, to distract myself. To forget about the stress.

“With my daughter and my wife I go to a park that’s near
my house. And I get out to, to distract myself. To forget
about the stress.”

Discussion
The results highlighted issues that dairy migrant dairy workers experience due to anti-immigration policies.
In addition to the hazardous working conditions that can harm their physical health, migrant diary workers
have their mental health at risk because of the negative impact anti-immigration policies have on them.
These issues may be exacerbated because migrant dairy workers often do not have health insurance, or
access to mental health professionals. This study analyzed just how migrant dairy workers are being
affected, specifically by the anti-immigration policies and sentient across the country. As previously
reported, participants reported fear of deportation for themselves or a loved one due to immigration policies
and enforcement (Pew Hispanic Center, 2010). This proved to be true when participants expressed fear for
themselves or loved ones when immigration laws were passed outside of Colorado, like the SB1070 law in
Arizona. Clearly the participants in Colorado were not being target directly, but it still caused direct fear of
deportation. When law enforcement began to enforce immigration policy, the racial profiling of all Latinos,
regardless of immigration status, also as a whole increased (Nier, Gaertner, Nier, & Dovidio, 2012).
Migrant dairy workers, and other seasonal and migrant workers are important to the US economy. Given the
current shortage in migrant workers, it is now more crucial to ensure their needs are being met, is in the
greater interest of society. Even for the participants with great resiliency, it important to note that stress and
anxiety for a prolonged time can have negative health consequences. Not to mention that discrimination
alone is associated with poor physical and mental health (Araujo & Borrell, 2006; Cavazos-Rehget al., 2007;
Ding & Hargraves, 2009 ; Finch et al., 2001; Gallo, Jiménez, Shivpuri, Espinosa de Los Monteros, & Mills,
2010 Lassetter & Callister, 2009; Pascoe &Smart Richman, 2009; Williams & Mohammed, 2009).

Implications for Social Work
The negative consequences of anti-immigrant policies and political rhetoric affecting migrant dairy workers,
not only impacts them, but their families as well. In cases when one or both parents are deported, the lives of
children are flipped upside down. These children often experience both negative behavioral and mental
health consequences like fear, anxiety, stress, changes in eating and sleeping and a decline in academic
grades (Baum, 2010; Brabeck & Xu, 2010; Chaundry et al., 2010; Dreby, 2012). Social worker’s need to
not only advocate for families and the members that are affected, but also advocate for change in
immigration policies that cause harm to families and communities. The mission of the social work
profession is to promote social Justice and social change on behalf of oppressed and vulnerable populations
(National Association of Social Workers (NASW), 2008). Social workers abide by the NASW standards
(NASW, 2008). It is time that this ignored population is seen and treated humanely like the NASW calls for.
The research pertaining to migrant workers has been extremely limited, thus further research should be done
to determine needs of migrant workers and propose interventions to meet those needs. It is time the invisible
population becomes visible.

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