MusicalAptitudeTesting:FromJamesMcKeen Gattellto GarlEmilSeashore JereT. Humphreys Abstract The.PYqPgse of this artide is to describe the iinks betrareenlate nineteenth-century P:y:.holgFcal researchand the,early musical aptitude researchof Carl EmiI Seashot"liilOti7949)- The primary link was the music-relatedresearchof the leader of the *"t t"t-tJitit n movement during the 1890s, Columbia University psychologist James McKeen C"tt"fi (185eD44). Gerrran psydrologist wilhelm wuriai iirstmctEd Cattelt in the German scientific t1{i.tion, and EStglishresearcherFrancis Galton encouraged Cattell's rur""t.h * individual differences and introduced him to statistical methods. Suring the 1890s,Gtt"U conducted a longitudinal study, the hlpothesis for which was thai tests of sensorv discrimination ability, induding-After mtisicat discrimination, would correlate ;ti.t undergraduates' acadeuric gra$g_s. his study failed to produce the expected results, the mental tqting movesrent followed Alfred Bindt and Victor Henri of Fran'ce,"na GEefr tumed to other activities. However, in the meantime, Cattell influenced'rrta"y "th;; imp-oltant_gsychologlsts,induding Edward W. Scripture, Ctd Seashore'sdoctoral'm"r,tot at Yale University, and eventually Seashore iiimseU. Despite the mentai t"rtit e movement's shift to Binet and Henri's cognitive.tlpe testing,' Seashore continued hiE conservative,sensoryapproach to the testing of musicalaptitudE. hen psychologist Carl Emil Seashore (1,86G1,949) began the two decades of researchthat led to the development of his famous tesii of rnusical aptitude,l he drew upondrew_ uPon feliefs beliefs and research methods then prevarent prevalent in the field field of psychologT. Y*y of those beliefs and methods were examined in a previous article.2The PurPose of this ?tti.l. is to describe the remaining major links berween late nineteenthcentury music-related psych_ological researchand Slashore'searly work: the music-related researchof JamesMcKeen Cattell (7850-19U), (7860-19U),the leader of the hental i:rental testing testine movement during the 1890s.3 In the 189Os,-Europeanand Arnerican researchersin the new field of scientific, "armchair" empirical,-laboratory-basedpsychology (as opposed p-hilosophical psycholory) -fust focused their researgh on. sensory perception, the the of new psychoiogy's tti"". "great topjcs."{ At about the sami time, American psychotogistsassumei the i6idership in 3ent1l jgst$g research, which w.as part of the- new psychology. Carl Seashorl undertook his doctoral studies in the first half of the 1890s,I ieriod lhat coincided with the birth of sensory psychology and mental testing research in the United States. Not long thereafter, he-applied-the methods of scienfifii psychology and mental testing to his researchon musical aptitude. PerceptionResearch . Speculation about sens-ory perception beg"n in Ancient Greece. Empiricai research on the same began 4"ti"g the Renaisslnce, including studies of the least discernible differences.in^mu{I?I p,itch. Theoretical and empirical-perception research by Ernst Heinrich Weber (779-*7878),Gustav Theodor FechnerliAOt-tee4, Fler*.on Ludwi! Ferdinand von Helmholtz (7827-7894), and other physicists led to a fusion ol philosophiPl speculadon and physiological research- oh sensation, which in turn to_th" emdrgelc-e of the field of modern psycholory. wilhelm S.gncibtle{:fry{qUf Wundt (1832-7920)of the University- of Leipzig, the world's first iarirous psycholosist, borrowed testilg ideas and research methois hom these early rese_archeri"i a n"fi"a develop the subfields of experirnental psychology and psychophysics.s ResearchSfudresin MusicEduetion Number10,June 1998 Cambridge University researcherFrancis Galton (1822-1911)borrowed sensorv p"I:?Fo" researchmethods from Wundt and others. An adherent of the long-standing belief that all knowledge is obtained through the five senses,Galton was also influenced theory of evolution, the natural selectionproperties of by Charles Darwin's (1809-1882) irnplied.individual differences. which befween peoplq5 the widespre-adUeUefin facuity psychology, whose adherents held that sensory faculties correspond to faculties of the brain; the emergenceof atomisticchemistry, which encouragedpsychologiststo study the "psychologicai-elements," ol senses;and the developmentof the conceptof the no.mil, o, distribution curye.7 rlndom, Evenfually, Galton hypothesized that "a measure of sensory acuiry would provide a crude measureof aperson's.levelof inteiligence,"and that mental ability is nornillly, or randomly, disEibuted.o He also carne to believe that mental abilities are related to Lach other, which led him to develop the rudiments of statistical conelation.e Unlike Wundt, who attempted to identify traits corunon to all (or most) people, Galton used Wundt's methods to measure individual differences in mental abiliry. Galton's research, which began in the 1870s,induded tests of musical discrimination and perception.ro JamesGattell Leadership of the mental testing movement passed from Galton in the 1880sto in the 1890s. Cattell graduated from Lafayette College in Easton, Cattell James Pennsylvania, where his father was president, in 1880. For the next several years, he divided his time between completing a master's degree at Lafayette, working on a Ph.D. in psychology under Wundt (granted in 1885), studying with Galton at Cambridge, and several other activities. One of those activities was a graduate fellowship af Johns Hopkins University (1882-83),where he and fellow graduate students (two of whom were John Dewey and JosephJastrow) helped G. Stanley Hdl (1844-7924)establish one of the first American psychologicallaboratories.lr He went to the University of Pennsylvania in the late 1880s,where he opened a psychological laboratory and held the first university factrlty position in pqychologlt in the United States. After moving to Columbia University in 1891, he provided -leadershipto the new experirnental psycholog'y movement for th-e next twenty-six years.'' Cattell see-msto have b"Efr. his sensory perception studies while at Johns Hopkins in 1883.'" He continued at least one of those experiments in Wundt's He also seems to have developed his keen interest in experimental hb6ratory.lr apparatus at Leipzig, induding those for music research: We have in the [Wundt's] laboratory two excellentpieces of apparatusfor testing the power of distinguighingnotes.The one is an organanangement,whidr givesthe notes at intervalsof four vibrationsfrom 32 to 1024tHz.l . . . The other apparatusis a set of tuning forks madeu? byKonig [slcJ,in Paris.Pairsof tuning forks are takm, one alwaysgivesthe samenote, the other (by meansof weights) can be so regulatedas to give a note a little lower or higher.Experiments on this subiectarebeingmadeby-threegroupsof shrdents. . . In onecase,memoryof notesis beingespeciallyinvestigated.rs "[c]areful Similarly, in 1888, Cattell described experiments, not yet published," that had 'been carried on for several years past in the Leipsic [srcJ laboratory" on the least perceptible differencesin loudness and pitdr, and on the perception of musical intervals.t6 Cattell also s€€Itls to have first become interested in individud differences during his time with Hdl at ]ohns Hopkins.tt He took that interest with him to Leipzig, wher6 Wundt, himself uninterested in individual differences,rt dlowed C-attell to writsa paper on the zubiect as early as 1885.re Cattell's interest in individual differences intensified during his intermittent work with Galton at Cambridge over s_gveralyears. For example, his letters from C-ambridgetell "association experiments,"- which of his he employed in his mental testing efforts. Cattell studied extensively with Wundt, the early ieader in the psychological measurement of sensory perception, and Galton, the pioneering mental td-stLrandthe e-aly.leaderin the measurementof individual differencesin sensoryperception. The fact that both men incorp_oratedtests of musrcal perception in their reieirch ippears to have influenced Cattell to do the same. Cattell the MentalTester At the University of Pennsylvania,his first full-time position, Cattell gathered for the lbor1tory "a valuable collection of Koenig's [src]apparatus for the studi of hearing and the elements of music . . ."2'r Soon therjafter, in ibgO, he published # *U.f" i"'! Britis\ journal that scholarsbelieve was the first time the term "mental test" appearedin print." In this artide, a watershed in the history of mental measuremenlP Cattell describeda series of ten tests then in use at Pennsylvania. None of the ten tests involved music, although one measured "Reaction-timefor Sound." However, Cattell listed an additional fifty tests still under development, "which I iook on as the more important in order that attention may be drawn to them, and co-operationsecuredin choosingthe best series of tests and the most acctrrate and convenient methods." Some of th"esewere music tests.2a Upon- his arrival at Columbia, he establishedthe departrnent of psychology and developed what became known as the "FreshrnanTests," *fricfr he adririnisterei'to at least fifty volunteer freshmen each year beginning in 1893. Cattell held great hope for these tests, which he predicted would corelate with each other and irith acardemic grades. In an 1896artide, Cattell and a collaboratordescribedtheir researchmethods in some detail and -provided preliminary,results from what may have been the first predictive study of academicsuccess.Only two tests related to music. For one, a test of g (o{ !gnes), the researcherssimply divided subjectsfrom each year into "normal," l"1lt "subnormal," and "abnormal" categories.The other music test measurid the "acclrracvof the perception of pitch." After subjects hgqd-a pitch (F below middle C) played on a monochord, they attempted to match the pitch by adjusting the instrument's 6ridge.5 After several more years-of data collection, one of Cattell's graduate stud.ents, Wissler, Clark reported more results from the study, induding data collectedfrom u r*.U number of fernale students from Barnard College. Wissler correlatedthe test scoreswith each other and -with. senior. grade-point averages using the technique of statistical correlation that had been discovered by Galton and developed by- Galton's young associate,IGrl Pearson.% Most of the instruments in the battery were tests of sensory discrimination. In addition to the pitch perception test describedabove, Wissler discusseda music-related test of "Rhythm -and Percepfion of Time" that measured subjects' abilities to continue japping a.steady_beaton.a telegraph.key fifty times after hearing a stimulus of ten tapped beats,and two "Ir,agery" questions that required written responies.t On.fhg pitch pe:ception test, the "averageerror" (rnonochordbridge distancefrom "correct" the placement)was 7.2 centimetersfor freshmen and 3.7 centimJtersfor seniors. Wissler conduded that wornen were superior to men and seniors were superior to freshrnen on that test, with a "certainty of results" of p <.01 in each case.r He iound no statistically significant differences in pitch perception between freshmen from different veats.! Unfortunately, with one excepticn, Wissler did not report correlation coefficients pitdr perception test and the other variables. The exception ftwee1-thg -In was a coefficient of r = .01 between Pit+ perception and reaction time (N = 100). general, he found only chance intercorrelations between the physical and mental tesis, and moderate intercorrelationsbetrseengrades for-specific coutses. Most disappointing of all, he found only drance correlations between individual tests taken as freshirLn and-overall grad.esas seniors. Among other things, Wissler complained about the inadeq-uacy of ResearchStrdlesin MusicEduation Number10,June 1998 -.TFF 45 representative measure of students' abilities to handle "life undergradultg gf3des a-c.^a ''exceedingly complex," He concluded that Cattell'" phy;;; tasks," which he d.eemed ""d "from tests promised littie a practical point of view."s mental Other MentalTesters European researchers were beginning to conduct similar studies of mental functions in the 1890s.31In the United States,where most of the work occurred,Frank Boas(1858-19!2)relatedschoolchildren'stest scoresto their mental alertnessas estimated fifteen tests for college students; and by teachersl.f.osephJastrow (1,863-1.94).developed ilTgt A. Gilbert (b. ?-d. ?) studied the mental and physical deveiopment of schooi children. Like Cattell and Wissler, Boas and Gilbert found only chairce relation;hit; between test scoresand teacherratings.3z More important than any of these mental testing efforts was the work of Alfred Binet (7857'1911)and Victor Henri (1,872-7940) in France and Hugo Miinsterberg (1gd31915)in the United States. Thesereseardrersexperimentedwith a iadically differlni voe of mental test based-on- cogni{ve fulctioling iather than sensory perc6ption.s CaitlU seemsto have recognizedas early as 1895the irnportanceof thesen-ewtests: of a seictly PfFhological draracter. For the psychotogistthese are, of course, the most interesting and important. But we are at present concernedwith anthropometric work, and measurementsof the body and of the smses corneas completelywithin our scopeas the higher rnental processes.- Indeed, the mental testing movernent soon followed Binet and Henri's lead. Probably for that reason, Cattell, like Galton before him, turned to other interests.$ He became embittered, -in part because"his major conFibution to experimental eveltu{I psycho_logy. . . [was] thoroughly discredited and replaced by the . . . tests of Alfred Binet."" Cattelland Seashore Severalpiecesof evidencesuggestthat Cattell influenced Carl Seashore'swork on musical aptitude_testing. First, as a founding member and fourth president of the Associa6on,-foundingeditor of the Ameriun loutrul of Psyctutogy, American -Psygholoqtcal founding head of the psychology departsnent at a leading university (Colum6ia), and leader of the menld testing movement during the 1890s,JamesCattell was an extremely prominent psychologist. Second, C,attell was a professional friend of Edward Wheeler Scripture (78il1945),Seashore'sdoctoral mentor at Yale University who himseUhad taken his doctorate under Wundt in 1891. Scripture was a highly productive researcher,but becauseof his disagreeable personality, he "was largely estranged from his generation of American psychologsts," except for Cattell, his "best friend among the American psychologists."t In addition to the personal relationship betr'veenCattell and Scripture,-bothScripture and "an approach[ke Seashoreadopted Cattell's"to the sfudy of sensation.s A final set of dues to the link between CatteUand Seashoreresides in the James McKeen Cattell Collection held by the Library of Congress. The author located more than seventy pieces of personai correspondencebetween the two rren, the earliest dating from 7g9,.f..8' Seashore'sdoctoral dissertation, whidr he completed in 1895, was about neither mental testing nor music. Instead, his interest in mental testing rnay have come indirectly from the prominent Cattell, whose artide on the Columbia 'Freshmart Tests" appeared after Seashore compl^etedhis dissertation but before he published his first artidli on a music-related study.o C-attell'swork with music tests pr6UaUtyappealed to Seashore, a former singrng school student, dtutch o.lganist and droir director, and college glee dub director from an amateur musical farnily." Nttmber10,June 1998 ResearchSludiesin MusicEduetion Gonclusions Cattell learned from Wundt about the long German tradi6on of perception research,with its "precision,accuracy,_9t4".,_and-repioducibilify of data and findings."o, He may have becorneinterested in individual differencesundei Hall. Under Galto;, he dey.elope{ his_interest in the measurement of sensory perception differences befween individuals. In addition, Gdton's concepts about slatisticai conelation undoubtedly formed the basis for-Cattelll: !,ypott"ses about relationships between mental ability ani academicgrades(and other "life tasks"). Despite the failure of Cattell's tests, his work "was of great importance as it was "s psvcholoerv'to problems o7 the first attempt to apply the 'new psychology' indivijual diffprencpc oJ individual differences."s tless, he experienced difficulry Nevertheless, difficultv in selecting selectins valid, valid. measurable rneasurah'le dependent denenrtpnr variables, aa problem variables, problem that that continues continues to to pliague plague todav's today's music music education education researchj'c researchers. F{ic His problem, presumably main however, was his presumabty false f*: hypothesis hypothesis about shone relationshios strong relationships Fait -hgrygver, +i Lolr^tooaanlal ahilifrr --J -^--^-' -L:l:r. mental ability betrareen and percepHonabilty. sensory-^-^^-I^It is not surprissg that Seashore and many other American psychologists followed Cattell and not Binet, becausethe latter's most important work aplearea a-fe* yeaf. liater. Horvever, most American researcherseventuilly joined Binai in defining intelligencg as cognitive functioning_ab{t}t not as sensory perception abiliry. Bi -peiceptibn contrast, Seashore'stests rernained largely in the sensory realm, ind hL aPpe.usto have followed several other early mental testing researCherswhen he added "psychological processes,"something that Cattell (tg-"al m:nlgry_to his list of important did not do.* However, Binet and other mainstream mental testing researders dropped "sensation, attention, perception, association, and memory" from their test batferies around 79C4.46 Seashoreretained his 1890sbelief about yet another issue: that a series of mental tgsts could not-yield a-single sJgle that-representsgeneral musical (or intellectual) ability. That was Cattell's position and Binet's, but subsequentAmerican testing researcherswent on to develop the concept of the intelligence quotient and other unitary measuresof mental ability. On that issue, at least, Seashore'sconservatism aligned his work with current thinking, which has now returned to that position. lmplicationsfor Music Education Cattell, the leading sensory mental tester of the 1890s,formally tested his first complete b3ttery in the 1890s. Seashore,the leading sensory musical tester, formally tested his first complete battery in the 1.910s,sorne twenty years later. Binet and Henri published their first battery of cognitive't1pe tests in 1904,only a few years after Cattell's sensory tests failed to predict academic achievement. Other researchers further developed the French tests in the first decade of the twentieth century, and have continued to develop them to this day. By-contrast, the field of music waited until 1955 for the appearance of a weli-inte[igence constructed test that corresponded to the second generation of tests.{7 Researdrers now question the validity of this second generation of tests, both of intelligence alld of musical aptitude. Both tlpes of tests piedict performance on schoolrelated tasks,s but not necess-arily on "life hiks." Two central historical questions remain. First, why did Seashore,unlike Cattell, not abandon the effort after his tests failed to demonstrati predictive validity? -his ln other words, wiy did Seashoreremain committed to sensory measures when (mostly American) counterpattt T other fields shifted from tests of sensory perception to tests of reasoningand judgment? It was partly a matter H4tg, Seashorehaving received his doctoral training and b"gt. his research Progmm during the crucial few years between Cattell's-bold hypothesis about relationshipsbetween sensory skills and mental ability and the failure of ResearciSfudrbsin MusicEduetion Number10,June1998 his statisticalcorrelationsto support tfat hypothesis. By the tirne failure was reported, have already committed himseif to his iife-long agenda. After all, Binet Seashoremay "key artide"-in which they ''argued for mental testing basednot on sensory and Henri's and motor functions but on the psychologicalprocessesthought to be involved i; in 1895,the year Seashorereceivedhii doctorate. intelligence. . ."4e--appeared It is aiso probable that Seashorebelieved that musical abilify really is basedlargely abilify, and therefore is somehow different from other mental abilitiei. sensory on years later, Seashoreexplained that he had "drifted gradually into the field of Regardless, psychology of music primarily for two reasons:first, rny love of music and realioation of greatpossibilitiesin an unworked field; and, secondly,"becausehis fust researchinterest, vision, plagysd its researchsubjectswith eye fatigue, a probiem that did not trouble aural researchers.* The second question is: Since Seashoredid not turn to other types of tests, why did other music researchersnot do so either? Almost frorn the beginning, critics charged that Seashore'sbattery was sensory and atomistic, but no one, induding his most prominent critic, Columbia University psychologist James Mursell (1893-1963),st conducted extensive, rigorous research on the tests or developed alternative tneasures. The lack of research-oriented graduate baining in music education undoubtedly hampered the profession'sefforts to test the validity of Seashore'sbattery thoroughly and to keep pace with new developments in the rnentai testing and research worlds generafly.s2in addition, Seashorehimself-with his Yate Ph.D. ii tne "scientific" field of psychology, his deanship at the University of Iowa and presidency of the American PsychologicalAssociation,and his tireless researchefforts and prolific publication record-brought considerableprestige to the field of rnusicalaptitude testing. Indeed, unlike most other earlier sensory rnental testing researchers,Seashore never changed his mind about the sensory nattrre of mental (musical)aptitude, although eventually he tacitly acknowledged the- possibility of other types of "musicol capacit5r" measures"furnish a tarly good index to when he wrote, in 1930,that his six published -Given his professionalpres6geandtliat of the field music capacityon the sensory side."s3 and in the absence of strong evidence against his clairnsor of alternative psychology, of testing, Seashore'stests stood nearly alone for a long approachesto musical aptitude time. An implication of this historicd researchis that the field of music education can the researchof prominent individuals from outside the field. Wundt, Galton, from benefit Cattell, and Seashoredeveloped some of the concepts and researchmethods and tools "leaps faith" of and each worked diligently still in use today. Each rnade large intellectual to test his hlpotheses. Each rendered the field a great service, directly or indirectly. In particular, this story of James Cattell and Carl Seashoresuggeststhat music educators should consider carefully the contributions and prestige brought by those from outside "more the field. Seashorehimself mentioned that he had been or less iustlv the butt of criticism from the musical profession." Hottrever, he "lsg wrote that: following, but ln the field of diagnosingmusicaltalent, I have had a rather e)ctraordinary unfortunatelymuch of it a gullible and non-criticaltype on the part of peoplewho would take an isolated element in my procedure and handle it as if it coveredthe whole situation.s Clearly, it is incumbent upon music educators to decide which contributions to embrace, which to disregard, and whidr to use as building blocks for the next generation of ideas. Notes 1 Z 3 4 5 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 74 15 Cart E. Seashore of MusicatTalent(New York: The PsychologicalCorporation, , SeaslweMeasures 1919). |ere -1.. Humphreys, ?:ecurs_orsof. Musicai Aptitu-de Testing: From_the Greeks through the Work of FrancisGdton," Jounul of Rexmchin MusicEducatbn41.(Winter 1993):3i.5-27. Ea*it G. Boring, A^Historyof Eryrimmtat Psyclology,2d ed. (New York: Appleton CenturyCrofts, 1950),559. The other tr,\to"great topics,".learningand motivation, did not emerge until a few years later. Humphreys, "Precursors,"323. lbid., gr|rr. Ch"tl"s Darrrin, in his Tte Desentof lvlan ard Selectionin Relationto Sex,2d ed. (New york: American PublishersCorporation,1874), had.argued that sensitivity to pitch is important in the naturaf .qelectiol process because "the vocal organs wer-e primariiy usdd and perfectedin relation to the propagationof the species"(589). "Preculsors," H,r-phreys, 31&19. lbid., 319. Attenrpts to measurernental ability had occtr:redat least since the early nineteenth cgnt:lry: Acco_rdin-g t9 !9t"l* Goodenough, Mqttal Testing lts Histoy, Phnciptes,and (New York Rinehart and Company, 7949),3, the-first major fuork alone those AVplicatiotzs lines was produced in France and differentiated between rnental d6ficiency and inental disease.Jean-EtienneDominique Esquirol, DesmaWies mentalesnnsidi ries souslesraVports a ryted.ico-Ugyl, vols. I, -II and atlas (Paris:J. B. Bailligrs, 1838).Galton lnedial hygientque, knew from this researchthat idiots and imbeciles frequently exhibit inferior sensory acuity, -Richaid he a relationship hlpothesized betw-een sensory acuity and intelligence. :9 Hermstein, I.Q. in tle Mritooacy @oston:Little, Brown, 1973),63. Humphreys, "Pr€orrsors," 321. Galton developed his first regression iine from the size of "mother" and "dagghtg" Pea:. Karl Pearson,The Life, Izttrs and.Laboursof FrattcisGalton, vol. IIIA (C-ambridge, England:CambridgeUniversity Press,1930),,5,69"Preculsors," Humphreys, 379-20. Controversy remains over whom shouid be credited with estabiishingthe first psvcholoeical laboratory in the United States:Hall 31Johns Hopkins in early tB83 or Williain Jarne"s at Hanrard University around 1875. The controversy centers on whether 'James' ioom for dmtonstrational erperiments at Hanrard" was really a laboratory. J. McKeen Cattell, "Early Psydrological Laboratories," Science 67 (May 79?A):5tt6. Most biographical accounts state that Cattell went to Pennsylvaniain 1888,but he himself wrote later that he founded the laboratory there in 1887.Ibid., ii45. Publishedaccountsof C-attell'slife differ in many details as to his exact whereabouts at specific times before his extendedstaysabroa$gn-dedin 1-891.Numer_ouspersonal-letters,piimarily to his parents, suggest_thathe traveled frequently letween Leipzig, Cambridge_,and varibus othei places in the United States and Europg. E:8.: Ir1n !*gl McKeen C-atteli1,Leipzig, lettirs to 'Mama and P-apa"tWtli* and Flizabeth CatteUl, Philadelphia, 25 luiy'#55, fAe+ and 5 'Familv December 1894, in James McKeen Cattell Collection, Container aence," 188&March December 1903, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress-, 99rypot Washin$on, DC. The most completeaccount of Cattell'sactivities from 18&1888 apiears in Midrael M. Sokal, &., An Educationin Psyclnlogy:lamesMcIQen Ctttett's Jouriit and (Cambridge,MA: The MIT Press,19t1). Idtns fron Gentunyand Enghnd,1880-1888 [bid.,70, note 3. 'Ueber die Tragheit der Netzhaut und des Sehcentrums," Philosophislu J. McKeen Cattell, p+]!-l; reprinted as 'The Inertia of the Eye and Brain," 1no trairs.; in 3 (1885)i ,tudi* IvIanof Science,vol. I (Lancaster,irA: JamesMcK"gr C-aneII,lamesMcl(un &ttell,7860-1.9a14: The SciencePress,794n,27. (?agecitation is to the reprint edition.) to Francis Galton, Cambridge, England,,[n.d. sivenl, flames McKeen CatteUJ,Leipzig,letter quoted in Francis Galton, "On Recent Designs for AnthropomeuiJ hstmments]" fhc Igurnqt of the AntlvopologicalInstitute of Grut Britain and lrelitd 15 (1887): 8. Severai of C-attell'sjournal entries anci letters to his parents beginning in 1884also contain references to his involvement with apparatusin Wundt's Leipzig laboratory. E.g., Sokal, Ednu,tion, 9&105. ResearcfiSfirdrbsin MusicEduetion Number10,June1998 49 'The PsychoiogicalLaboratory at Leipsic lsicl," Min"d13 (January1888): t6 JamesMcKeen Cattell, 43. 17 Sokal,Eduution,70,note 3. Although Gdton is u.sualiyregardedas the $9t.jo study individuai differences'"r,d *us the undisputedly leader of the movement, Hall was edectic and bT".T.u progressiveand, like other psychologt:!.T the,child-stu$l mgvqlent,-eventualiy 'Th_eChildT. childr_el-. iere. _Hump-hreys, inteiested in the characteristiisof individual in MusicEducntion Study Movement and Public SchoolMusic Education,"lournal of Reseatch 33 (Summer1985):82' 18 HumphreYs,"Precursors," 319' 'ueber.die Zeit der Erke^nnung-yli Benennungvorr Schriftzeichen,Bildem 79 J. McKeen Catteil, R. S. Woodworth as "On und Farben.;'Pnito*phi*tu Studim2 (1385):63F50; translatod_b-y the Time Required fbr Recognizitrg*d Naming .Itettersand Words, Picturesand Colors," in Cattell, Cittty, vol. I, I{25. Yearslater, Cattell gave this revealing accountof Wundt's reactionsto his early work on individual differencgs:. . : 5 mY second interview with Wundt [probably in i883] I presentedan outline of the work I wanted to undertake,which *", tt e'bUjecivl measurementof the time of reactions with sp-eciaireferenceto individual differences.Wundt said that. . . only psydroiogists could be th9 :gPiqctsin psychological experiments.I later bought an! made the apparatusneeded and did the work T my..otT ,oirrn, without, however] any intemrption in relations that were then becomin-g-SSf{y I RcoicTD 28 (May Dzr;: rso. McKeenC"t;ii,-"h Memoryof Wilhe'ImWundt," Psyclological 'Mama..and Papa," Philadelphia, 23 letter to qamb-r-rqg-e., 20 E.g., " Jim [JamesMcKeen CatteU], #55. Container Collection, Cattell McKeen 1893, No.reriber James zl 'JarnesMcKeen Catteil, l'!^s.yclgtogyat the University of Pennsylvania,"Amniun lourruI of 3 (APril 7890):282' PsYclulogY ZZ JarnesMcKeenCatteu, 'Mental Testsand Measurements,Mind 15 (January1890):37$80. ?3 Katherine W. Linden and JamesD. Linden, Modsn Mmtal Measuranent:A Historial P*sVectioe ---@oston: HoughtonMifflin Company,1968)'9-10' 'Mental hb indebtednessto Galton in that artide, 24 Caftell, Tests," 378. C-attella_clcnowledg"q "already gseq some of these tests, and I hope the series had when ne wroie that Galton here suggestedwill meet with his approval" (373'note 1)' "Physical and Mental Measurementsof the Students zS 'J. -McKeen Catte1 and Livingston Farrand, 3 (1895):635. of columbia universi{r' Prydnlogial R@ie1p 'The Correlation of Menal and Psyclnlogiul RaoieuMonograph 26 Oark Wissler, ----SuVplene:nfs l_]nysicalTests," 7'52' 1901)" 3 (Whole No' 16)flune /7 lbid.,9. zg lbid., 5, 1s17. The present author translatedWissler'sarchaicstatisticalterns and symbolsto modern usge. Zg lbid., ZI-ZZ.Wissler did not report exact significance levels for these and most of his other statisticd tests. 30 lbid.,54, 6t-62. 31 For more information seeLinden and Lindm' 10' "Antluopological tnvestigations in Schools;' 1 (June1891):22S gZ !{SoWl.Sgniltaty Frank Boas, "So_me on CollegeSt'dmts: Tests [sic] antt*"opometrigirnd.P.sychologic 28; JosephJastr_ow, +2n,,; (April 1_892), + J. Allen gilo"+, Psyclol;gy o7 preliminary eris;rtrrrr-t Survey," An A tt" in ,'ResearchelilM;r"t;e Fh#t."t Deielofmmibr Soioot-children,"ftrary-fr*, Vt. Scripture (New Haven, CT: Yale University -.,\liJ"uoi..I, ed..E. laboratq-y, Vab Psyc'yjtogtd,l "R.searctrd upon school Childrm -an{ .co[9g9 Gilt*t-; press, uriif?a i v6I. I, qL G99tgtT' W' Patsickand I' q Wo-StAA in isyAubg,, Shrdents,"ii, U"#tV 'Cityt of-iowa, 789n: Ql" .of Gilbert's testing St"t" Unirersi-ty'Txperimeng Allen Gilbe1i-(ffi; of on ihe MusicalSensitiveness e)@erinentsinvolved music t L Gtt!.{, w' Scripture E' ed' volI, l-aboratory, nsyaniogtcal t" srrrd6 frh'tht-yd" siffiTchtid;, YaleUnivi:rsityPress,1893)' CT: Haven, CN"* individuelle," L'grY. psydnlogi4ru2 (1895):41165; 'n: 33 A. Binet and v. Hmri, "L,apsychotogie &' in'tilcHiioryof Psglnlogv' #bt"d'by excerpts Richard I.'?:;;d;; Number10,June1998 iriiwt rtroufu ffitc;-T hess, Ed*t' c-i?;t-lcanuriage, MA:Harvarlluniversitv ResarchSfirdiesin MusicEd!@tiolrt 1955),.42*33; and lqgo. Mtn{9{e19,. _Vu, individual Psychologie," Cmtralbiattf. ntoenlceikutzde und psychiabie14 (1891):79G98. U Cattell and Farrand., 62g. 35 Humphreys, '?recursors,"322. % Michael M. Sokal, 'The Unpublished Autobiography of -Cattell Jarnes McKeen Cattell," Amriun PSydwlogbt never compietely gave up on his 'Freshrnan36 1yty 7!71): 529. Evidence that Tests"can be found in a report written n 7922.l. M. Cifteil,"'ffre Firsi year of report, 1 December 7922,in JamesMcKeen t" PtyqhqlogicalC_orporation,"unpublished Cattell Collection, Container #178,-'SubjectFile," 189S1936,Manuscipt Division, Library of Congress,Washington,DC. 37 Michaei M. Sokal,-'Biographical Approach: The PsychologicalCareer of Edward Wheeler Scripture," -n Historiograplryof Modan Psyclobgy: Aimi, Resurces,ApVroaclus,ed. Josef Brozek and Ludwig J.-P^ongratz(Ioronto: C. I. Hogrefe, Inc., 19S0);26,3.Catte[, for e>