FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
Series: Visual Arts and Music Vol. 2, No 2, 2016, pp. 53 - 62
DOI: 10.22190/FUVAM1602053C

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PITCH-MATCHING AND GRADE
LEVEL, SEX, ETHNICITY, AND CLASSROOM TEACHERS’ USE
OF MUSIC IN GRADES K-3
UDC (371.3:78+781.4)::(78.07:371.213.3)+784

Shelly C. Cooper1, Jere T. Humphreys2
1

University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA,
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA

2

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between pitch-matching
and grade level, sex, ethnicity, and classroom teachers’ use of music among K-3 students
(N = 289) taught by the same general music teacher. Portions of the data from a pitchmatching exercise that functioned as the music teacher’s roll-taking procedure during the
2005-06 school year were treated as pre- and posttests. There were no significant pretest
differences between ethnic groups (Hispanic, White, Other). There were significant
pretest differences among classes taught by different classroom teachers, as well as the
female students scoring significantly higher than males. Covariance analysis (pretest as
covariate) revealed significant improvement by girls over boys on the posttest. There were
no significant pretest differences among grade levels, suggesting a lack of carryover of
pitch-matching skills from previous years, despite significant improvement (pre-post) for
every grade level during the year under study. The boys performed poorly relative to girls
in higher grades, though the interaction was not significant. Finally, the study revealed
relationships between classroom teachers’ reported use of music and student gain scores
(pre-post) in pitch-matching.
Key words: pitch-matching, echo singing, singing voice, singing voice assessment

Finding the best methods for enhancing children’s vocal development, aural acuity,
and pitch-matching ability remains a major task for music educators. One important goal
for those who provide music instruction, whether a music specialist or a classroom teacher,
is to assist children in learning to use their singing voice and to match pitch (MENC, 1994,
National Music Standard 1: “Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music”).
Research shows that general music teachers involve students in singing activities for
approximately one-third of their instruction time (Baldridge, 1984; Moore, 1981; Weinberg,

Received March 15 2016 / Accepted April 21 2016
Corresponding author: Jere Humphreys
Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona,USA
E-mail: Jere.Humphreys@asu.edu
1

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S. COOPER, J. HUMPHREYS

1988), yet many students are unable to match pitch at reasonable levels of accuracy and
consistency (Levinowitz, Barnes, Guerrini, Clement, D’April, & Morey, 1998).
Numerous researchers have investigated aspects of singing and pitch-matching in
elementary general music classes, including teaching methods and techniques as well as
learning outcomes (e.g., DeYarman, 1972; Goetze, & Horii, 1989; Martin, 1991; Rutkowski,
1994). These researchers have reported mixed results for different age groups or grade levels
and other demographic categories of students. Cooper (1995) posited that the conflicting
research results were due in part to individual studies focusing on a limited number of grade
levels.
Most general music method books promote echo singing as a viable technique for
teaching songs, reinforcing melodic contour, expanding vocal range, and vocal exploration
activities (e.g., Andress, 1980; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2001; Choksy, 1974). Not
surprisingly, children learn to sing through direct imitation of a teacher model in most
classrooms (Apfelstadt, 1984). Research suggests that imitation can be successful with
children as young as three years (Sinor, 1984/1985). Despite the ubiquity of vocal modeling
in elementary general classrooms, however, researchers have not been able to identify the
most effective type(s) of vocal models for children to imitate. There is some evidence that
children experience the most success when matching adult female or child models of either
sex (Green, 1990; Sims, Moore, & Kuhn, 1982; Smith, 1963; Yarbrough, Green, Benson, &
Bowers, 1991). Furthermore, Hendley and Persellin (1996) reported more improvement in
singing accuracy among children when they imitated adult male models using a falsetto
range than when they imitated the same models using a normal male singing range.
Other questions relating to children’s singing remain, particularly in the area of pitchmatching. For example, studies have yielded mixed results over whether children are more
accurate when singing alone or in groups. Although Smith (1973/1974) and Green (1994)
concluded that students sang more accurately in group unison situations than when singing
alone, other researchers have reported that experiences in singing alone appeared to
improve children’s singing accuracy (Clayton, 1986; Goetze & Horii, 1989; Joyner, 1971;
Smale, 1987/1988). Thus, Goetze’s (1985/1986) findings of improved singing accuracy as a
result of solo singing activities in grades K-1 are in line with the majority, but not all, of the
findings of relevant studies. For example, her finding of no significant difference in singing
accuracy for grade 3 subjects is in agreement with Cooper (1995), who reported no
significant differences at any grade level (1-5). Cooper speculated that her use of a child
model, rather than an adult model, was a contributing factor to the differing results.
Most researchers have reported no significant differences on various singing tasks
between male and female subjects (Apfelstadt, 1984; Cooper, 1995; Pedersen & Pedersen,
1970; Petzold, 1963; Sinor, 1984/1985; Smale, 1987/1988; Welch, Sergeant, & White,
1995/1996). In studies in which significant differences occurred, females performed more
accurately than males regardless of singing task or vocal model (Davies & Roberts, 1975;
Goetze & Horii, 1989; Green, 1990, 1994; Trollinger, 2003). No studies were found on the
effects of ethnicity or classroom teachers’ use of music on pitch-matching achievement.
The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between pitch-matching and
grade level, sex, ethnicity, and classroom teachers’ use of music among K-3 students taught
by the same general music teacher. Four research questions paralleled these purposes and
guided the study. When following a traditional Kodály-based general music curriculum
that incorporates multiple opportunities for solo singing, use of solfege and hand signs,
limited singing with CDs/recordings, and utilization of singing games: (a) Is there a difference

Relationships between Pitch-Matching

55

in vocal pitch-matching ability as a function of grade level of the subjects? (b) Is there a
difference in vocal pitch-matching ability as a function of sex of the subjects? (c) Is there a
difference in vocal pitch-matching ability as a function of ethnicity of the subjects? (d) Is
there a relationship between vocal pitch-matching ability and classroom (not music)
teachers’ use of music with the students?

METHOD
The study was conducted in a K-6 public elementary school in a large city in the
southwestern United States. The school’s enrollment during the 2005-06 school year was
945, 733 of whom remained enrolled for the entire year. The racial/ethnic composition of
the school was 69.4% Hispanic, 16.8% White, 8.4% African American, 4.7% Native
American, and .8% Asian. Forty-eight percent of students in this study were female. Nine
percent of the school’s students received services through special education and special
programs, and 83.4% qualified for free or reduced lunches. Some 48.7% were students with
English as their first language, 39% lived in single-family homes, and 35% lived in singleparent families.
The study included K-3 students (N = 496) from all 17 regular classes taught as intact
music classes by the principal author of this study, the site-based general music specialist
for the school during the 2005-06 school year. The use of the regular general music
specialist for both the teaching and research components of this study should be considered
a positive aspect of the design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). This general music specialist
rated each student’s ability to match (echo) her sung model pitches, so-mi (A3, F#3) in a 4beat pattern, at various times throughout the school year (a 38-week span). Students were
asked to sing within a narrow range because it aligned with the frequency range of their
speech (D-A) and the limited movement of their larynx (Trollinger, 2003). The range from
Bb3 to Db4 was avoided because children experience difficulty in that range (Gordon, 1971,
1979; Young, 1971). Short melodic patterns were used, which are easier for children to sing
than longer patterns (Sims, Moore, & Kuhn, 1982). Students were scored as follows: 4 =
matched pitch (could be slightly sharp or flat), 3 = used singing voice but sang incorrect
pitches, 2 = used speaking voice, 1 = no response.
Each regular class in grades 1-3 participated in one 40-minute music class per week,
while kindergarten students attended two 20-minute music classes per week. Each music
class began with vocalization/vocal exploration activities, followed by a rhythm/beatkeeping exercise. Flowers and Dunne-Sousa (1990) noted that children are likely to expand
their vocal ranges “when modeling brief pitch patterns” and recommended implementing
“welcome warm-ups” specifically designed for that purpose (p. 110). The students were
then asked to echo the 4-beat so-mi pattern as a component of the roll-taking (attendance)
process, and as an attempt to reduce performance anxiety. The activity became an integral
part of the music class routine throughout the year, including days when assessments were
not recorded. A tuning fork or piano served as the pitch reference at the beginning of each
echo exercise. To control for order of presentation, students were called on to respond in
various orders throughout the year.
The pitch-matching test results from weeks 2 and 3 and those from weeks 37 and 38
of the academic year were designated as the pretest and posttest, respectively. When scores
were available from both weeks in a given pair (i.e., weeks 2-3 and 37-38), the means of the

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S. COOPER, J. HUMPHREYS

two weeks (dual data points) were used for individual subjects, resulting in an adjusted preand post-test score; when scores from only one week were available, the lone scores (single
data points) were used, resulting in an unadjusted posttest score. Scores were analyzed only
for subjects for whom there were complete data sets (i.e., at least one pretest and one
posttest score). The number of students per intact class with complete, usable data sets
ranged from n = 14-22. The final sample consisted of kindergarten (6 classes, n = 97),
grade 1 (3 classes, n = 50), grade 2 (4 classes, n = 77), and grade 3 (4 classes, n = 65). The
total number of subjects (N = 289) included 167 boys (57.8%) and 122 girls (42.2%). The
ethnic breakdown was Hispanic (n = 213, 73.7%), White (n = 40, 13.8%), Black (n = 25,
8.7%), Native American (n = 8, 2.8%), and Asian-Pacific (n = 3, 1.0%). To achieve
sufficient group and cell sizes for the analysis, the smallest three ethnic groups were
combined to form a new category, which resulted in three composite categories: Hispanic
(n = 213, 73.7%), White (n = 40, 13.8%), and “Other” (n = 36, 12.5%).
During weeks 37-38 (the posttest period), 14 of the 17 classroom teachers completed
a 5-question written survey about the frequency of their use of certain music activities
with their respective classes, and estimates of their students’ music-making activities
outside the classroom, for a response rate of 82.4%. Specifically, the classroom teachers
were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the following five statements: (a) “I
play music (CDs, Radio, etc.) in my classroom”; (b) “I play an instrument(s) in my
classroom (guitar, piano/keyboard, etc.)”; (c) “I sing with my students in the classroom”;
(d) “I hear my students sing in the classroom (that is, spontaneous student singing without
adult encouragement)”; and (e) “I hear my students sing outside the classroom (e.g.,
playground, in line, lunchroom, but not in music class).” The response scale was “never,”
“sometimes,” “often,” and “always,” coded 1-4, respectively.

RESULTS
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results revealed no significant pretest differences in
pitch-matching scores among the four grade levels (K-3) (F = 1.280, df = 3, 285, p < .282,
partial η2 = .013, Levene’s F = 3.175, p < .025). Non-parametric ANOVA (KruskallWallis) results revealed no significant pretest differences among the five ethnic groups (χ2 =
3.824, df = 4, p < .430). Similarly, a parametric ANOVA showed no significant pretest
differences among the three composite ethnic groups (F = 1.943, df = 2, 286, p < .145,
partial η2 = .013, Levene’s F = 2.786, p < .063) (Table 1).
There were significant pretest differences among classes of the 17 teachers (ANOVA
F = 3.559; df = 16, 272, p < .000, partial η2 = .173, Levene’s F = 1.764, p < .036), and also
as a function of sex, with girls scoring significantly higher than boys (ANOVA F = 5.247,
df = 1, 287, p < .023, partial η2 = .017, Levene’s F = 3.206, p < .074). Consequently, the
authors employed analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) tests in the next phase of the analysis,
with the pretest as the covariate and the (adjusted) posttest as the dependent variable. There
was a significant correlation between the pretest and (unadjusted) posttest scores (r = .196,
df = 287, p < .001), as well as a significant difference between the pretest and (unadjusted)
posttest means in favor of the posttest (t = -13.677, df = 288, p < .000) (Table 1).

Relationships between Pitch-Matching

57

Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations for Pretest and Unadjusted Posttest (N = 289)
Variable
Grade
K
1
2
3
Ethnicity
Hispanic
Other
White
Sex
Male
Female
Teacher
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
Total

n

Pretest (Covariate)
Mean
SD

Posttest (Unadjusted)
Mean
SD

97
50
77
65

2.505
2.600
2.776
2.569

.747
.904
.821
.684

3.284
3.310
3.370
3.169

.462
.614
.547
.741

213
36
40

2.545
2.694
2.775

.742
.856
.742

3.242
3.375
3.438

.584
.637
.509

167
122

2.509
2.713

.702
.808

3.210
3.389

.587
.566

15
21
21
19
16
17
15
18
16
14
14
22
17
14
17
18
15
289

2.600
2.238
2.439
3.211
2.625
2.294
2.933
2.833
3.313
2.571
2.643
2.500
2.294
2.143
2.647
2.444
2.467
2.595

.737
.436
.870
.713
.719
.686
.799
.515
.793
.514
.633
.802
.772
.949
.496
.616
.743
.754

3.667
2.810
3.381
3.421
3.594
3.382
3.200
3.444
3.281
3.214
3.143
3.364
3.088
3.071
3.265
3.139
3.433
3.286

.488
.680
.498
.607
.417
.600
.775
.616
.632
.378
.770
.492
.404
.616
.472
.413
.530
.584

A one-way ANCOVA revealed no significant differences in adjusted posttest means
among grade levels (F = 1.204, df = 3, 285, p < .309, partial η2 = .013, Levene’s F = 7.145,
p < .000), although there was a lack of homogeneity of variance among cells. There were
also no significant differences as a function of ethnicity (F = 1.698, df = 2, 286, p < .185,
partial η2 = .012, Levene’s F = .722, p < .487). However, there were significant adjusted
posttest differences among classes taught by different teachers (F = 2.196, df = 16, 272, p <
.006, partial η2 = .115, Levene’s F = 2.552, p < .001), but with a lack of homogeneity of
variance. There was also a significant difference as a function of sex, again in favor of girls
(F = 4.891, df = 1, 287, p < .028, partial η2 = .017, Levene’s F = .011, p < .916).
The three-way and most of the two-way interactions present in this design were not
analyzed due to cell size limitations (n < 5). Moreover, the teacher and grade level
variables were not crossed. The two remaining two-way interactions were not significant:
sex by ethnicity (F = .219, df = 5, 283, p < .803, partial η2 = .002, Levene’s F = 1.289,
p < .269), and grade by sex (F = 2.152, df = 7, 281, p < .094, partial η2 = .022, Levene’s

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S. COOPER, J. HUMPHREYS

F = 2.856, p < .007). The grade by sex interaction suggests that boys performed less well
than girls in the upper grades, although it failed to reach statistical significance (Figure 1).

Estimated Marginal Means of POSTTEST
3.5

3.4

Estimated Marginal Means

3.3

3.2

3.1

SEX
3.0

female

2.9

male

grade0-K

grade1

grade2

grade3

GRADE

Fig. 1 Interaction between Grade Level and Sex of Students (non-significant, p < .094)
The highest mean score on the teacher survey was for the teacher playing recordings
in class, followed in descending order by the teacher singing with students in class, the
teacher listening to students sing in class, the teacher hearing students sing outside of
class, and the teacher playing instruments in class (Table 2). All 14 responding teachers
indicated that they never played musical instruments for their students, so that item was
removed from the analysis and the four remaining items were combined into a scale.
The composite scores for this 4-item scale could range from 4 - 16 (1-4 points for each of
four items). There were moderate to strong intercorrelations among the four survey items
(r = .629 - .822, p < .000). Internal consistency (Chronbach’s alpha) for the scale was high
at ∞ = .91.
Zero-order correlations between the four individual survey/scale items and gain
scores (unadjusted posttest minus pretest scores) ranged from r = .058 - .167, with three
of the four being statistically significant (p < .05) (Table 2). The correlation between the
composite scale and gain scores was r = .148 (p < .05). A stepwise multiple regression
model with three music activity variables from the teacher survey predicted 5% of
variance in gain scores: the teacher listens to students sing in class, the teacher hears
students sing outside of class, and the teacher plays recordings in class. Adding the
teacher sings with students in class variable to the model resulted in no additional
variance accounted for in the dependent variable (Table 2).

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59

Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations (Zero-Order and Multiple)
between Reported Regular Classroom Music Activities and Gain Scores (N = 240)
Survey Item
M
SD
Play recordings in class
2.94
.971
Sing with students in class
2.54
1.026
Listen to students sing in class
2.29
.953
Hear students sing outside class
2.15
.730
Play instruments in class
1.00
.000
Regression model
Variable
SCβ
t

r
.147
.144
.167
.058
.000

p
.023
.026
.010
.372
1.000

p

R2

Model 1
Hear students sing in class

.167

2.611

.010

.028

Model 2
Hear students sing in class
Hear students sing outside class

.286
.158

2.946
-1.625

.004
.105

Model 3
Hear students sing in class
Hear students sing outside class
Play recordings in class

.247
-.236
.155

2.494
-2.209
1.718

.013
.028
.087

.039

.050

Note. ANOVA results for the 3-variable multiple regression model
are F = 4.178, p < .007.

CONCLUSIONS
Probably the most important finding in this study was that elementary classroom
teachers’ employment of certain music activities, in class and out, related to their students’
pre-post increases in pitch-matching skills. The self-report on teacher use of certain musical
activities predicted only 5% of variance in achievement gains, but small, incremental
improvements in student achievement can result in significant aggregate results in music
education (Humphreys, 2006). Listening to students sing in class, playing recordings in
class, and singing with students in class were all correlated significantly with improvements
in pitch matching, and hearing students sing outside of class entered the final regression
model. Data from this study failed to demonstrate any effects from instrument usage in
class due to lack of variance. According to Saunders and Baker (1991), many classroom
teachers receive limited musical training in their pre-service teacher education programs
and consequently lack the skills and confidence to perform for their students. Future
studies should corroborate and find additional reasons, if any, why many regular
classroom teachers (all in this study) fail to play instruments for their students in class.
Given the simplicity of the pitch-matching task and assessment procedure employed
in this study, a corroborating judge was not needed. However, the limited range of the 4point scale, with few 1’s actually awarded, resulted in limited variance in test scores,
which might account for some of the non-significant results, and probably contributed to
the lack of homogeneity in variance among some groups and cells. Until replication
studies can be conducted, readers should use caution when interpreting ANOVA and
ANCOVA results based on unequal group and cell variances.

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S. COOPER, J. HUMPHREYS

Statistically significant gains in pitch-matching achievement occurred between the
beginning and end of the school year (pretest and unadjusted posttest) at all four grade
levels: kindergarten (t = -10.571, df = 96, p < .000), grade 1 (t = -5.124, df = 49, p < .000),
grade 2 (t = -6.080, df = 76, p < .000), grade 3 (t = -5.609, df = 64, p < .000). However,
there were no significant pretest differences among grade levels. This begs the question as
to how much, if any, year-to-year carryover occurred in these students’ pitch-matching
ability. Did students at the beginning of each year revert to their achievement level from the
beginning of the previous year? Did the achievement gains identified in this study result
from the abilities of the music specialist, a teacher with more than 20 years of experience
but who was in her first year at this particular school? Were the significant gains due to the
Hawthorne Effect?
Another set of questions concerns the effects of sex of the subjects on pitch-matching
achievement. Even with the advantage of significantly higher scores on the pretest, the
ANCOVA analysis revealed a significantly larger increase for girls than boys in the adjusted
posttest scores. The interaction between the grade level and sex variables was not significant,
but it neared significance (p < .094) and might well have reached significance had there been
more variance in the performance test scores (Figure 1). Even though the interaction failed to
reach significance, this finding tends to support previous research findings of increasing
superior achievement in successively higher grades by girls in relation to boys in general
music classes.
The assessment procedure employed in this study could be useful to general music
practitioners. With the influx of national, state, and district standards and the pressure to
quantitatively demonstrate accountability and student progress, general music specialists
often struggle with ways to incorporate meaningful assessment into their routines. Since the
appearance of Boardman’s (1964) first rating scale for assessing singing in elementary
general music, many different assessment tools for measuring the singing voice have been
developed (DeYarman, 1972; Dittenmore, 1969; Feirerabend, 1984; Hale (Runfola), 1977;
Ramsey, 1982; Roberts & Davies, 1975; Rutkowski, 1990; Young, 1971). However, many
of these tools are cumbersome and time-consuming, rendering them problematic for
practical use in the general music classroom.
Levinowitz et al. noted the need for continued development of singing in general music.
After their review of singing in the elementary general music curriculum, they posited that: “. .
. a practical tool for evaluation should be easy to internalize and use on a regular basis during
the classroom process by the classroom music teacher” (1998, 37). More straightforward
assessment processes, such as the one used in this study, may prove more practical and
therefore more useful than some developed in earlier years. In this case, students thought
the teacher was merely taking attendance, whereas she was also tracking student progress
with minimal intrusion on instructional time because the assessment was embedded in the
procedural and instructional routines.
Future research designs with control groups might provide insights into these and other
questions. For example, does a classroom teacher who values music and encourages musicmaking in the classroom somehow lead students to match pitches more accurately? It might
prove informative in the future to employ research designs with multiple experimental groups
wherein types of regular classroom music activities, such as instrument usage, could be
controlled. Longitudinal studies on the same students from year to year could provide answers
to other questions raised in this study.

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61

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#:ED069431

VEZA IZMEĐU REPRODUKOVANJA ZADATOG TONSKOG
NIZA I RAZREDA, POLA, ETNIČKE PRIPADNOSTI I METODA
KORIŠĆENJA MUZIKE U NASTAVI NA PREDŠKOLSKOM
UZRASTU I U PRVA TRI RAZREDA OSNOVNE ŠKOLE
Cilj rada je bio da se ispita veza između reprodukovanja zadatog tonskog niza i razreda koje
dete pohađa, pola, etničke pripadnosti i načina na koji nastavnici razredne nastave koriste muziku
u nastavi kod predškolske grupe i učenika od prvog do trećeg razreda (N = 289) kojima predaje isti
nastavnik muzike opšteg smera. Podaci dobijeni na bazi vežbe za reprodukovanje zadatog tonskog
niza koje je nastavnik muzike koristio u procesu prozivke učenika tokom školske 2005/06. godine su
delom iskorišćeni kao predtestiranje i post-testiranje. U predtestiranju nije bilo značajnijih razlika
među etničkim grupama (Hispanjolci, belci, ostali). Značajne razlike u predtestiranju evidentirane
su između odeljenja kojima su predavali različiti nastavnici razredne nastave, a bilo je primetno i
da su rezultati devojčica bili značajno viši u odnosu na dečake. Analizom kovarijanse (sa
predtestiranjem kao kovarijantom) u post-testiranju je utvrđeno značajno poboljšanje kod
devojčica u odnosu na dečake. U predtestiranju nije bilo značajnijih razlika između različitih
razreda, što je sugerisalo da nije bilo prenošenja veštine reprodukovana zadatog tonskog niza iz
prethodnih razreda, i pored značajnog poboljšanja (predtestiranje – post testiranje) u svakom
razredu tokom referentne godine. Dečaci su imali slabije rezultate u odnosu na devojčice u višim
razredima, iako interakcija nije bila važna. Konačno, studija je ukazala na vezu koja postoji
između načina na koji su nastavnici razredne nastave koristili muziku u nastavi i napretka koji su
učenici pokazali u pogledu reprodukovanja zadatog tonskog niza (predtestiranje – post-testiranje).
Ključne reči: reprodukovanje zadatog tonskog niza, “eho” pevanje, pevački glas, procena glasa