who are the chicanos of the southwest? Historically, this question has
several answers. One of them beginning 400 years ago when Spanish and
Mexican colonists emigrated north from Mexico to settle in what is now
known as Arizona. Some of these colonists were direct descendants of the
spanish Conquistadors. Yet others were descended from the unions of the
spanish with the indians of Mexico.
Mm Yeah,
yeah.
Mhm.
Okay.
Yeah. Mhm, mm. Yeah. Mm. Uh huh.
Interracial and intercultural mixing occurred in Arizona through the
unions of the columnist with indians who had occupied this region for
thousands of years. Thus the mexicano traces his Arizona and Southwestern
origins back hundreds of years. While others are more recent arrivals, the
heritage of Arizona's chicano is a group includes spanish indian and
mexican origins.
The church missions of Wave Abbey founded in 16 92 to make a korean san
Javier del back. Both founded in the late 17 hundreds played an important
role in spreading the spanish language and Hispanic culture into the
southwest.
The missions in southern Arizona enjoyed economic prosperity until 1751 at
this time, the northern Pima Indians organized an uprising which caused
major destruction of the missions in the Santa Cruz Valley. As a result of
this conflict, the presidio or fort of tubac was established along the
Santa Cruz River. Later in 1776, the procedure of Tubac was transferred to
San Agustin del Toxin.
Hispanic pioneers were constantly being harassed by the western Apache,
The Presidio san agustin survived to direct frontal attacks by the Apache
warriors. In november of 17 79. The Tucson garrison with only 15 soldiers
defended the fourth in a long running battle against 350 Apache warriors.
In May of 1782, the soldiers again successfully defended the presidio by a
direct attack of 600 patches. The soldiers who are protective leather
jackets were called Soldados de Cuero and were successful in their
campaigns against the apaches. Despite a constant shortage of arms and
ammunition with the help of friendly pajamas, they later were able to
subdue the arequipa and piniella patches.
The years between 1790 and 1821 were prosperous and peaceful ones for the
pioneer settlers of Southern Arizona. Agriculture and cattle ranches along
with mining were developed as settlers took advantage of the absence of
the Apache wars. The economic base in the santa Cruz Valley was also
developing through the land grant system. Large cattle spreads and
extensive farming were established through individual families who built
their ranches in these lands, some of the largest cattle spreads in the
santa Cruz Valley belonged to the families of Ortiz, Romero, Herrera and
Elian Gonzalez. While friction existed between the Mexicano settlers and
the friendly indians, a spirit of cooperation also dominated the
settlements. It was the need for protection from the apaches and water
management for irrigation, which fostered unity among the Spaniards
Mestizos pima and Papago settlers. The struggle for Mexican independence
along with increased Apache raids had a devastating effect on the spanish
settlements in the present day states of Northern Sonora and Southern
Arizona known then as the media alta. The lack of funds for military
protection, the missions and the divided government struggling for power
retarded the future expansion of settlements in this area. The Apache took
advantage of the weekend government and attracted will many of the ranches
and settlements in Northern Sonora, including Arizona, were abandoned
By 1828. Few residents in the Tucson area owned more than 25 head of
cattle. During the 1830s, petitions for land grants from settlers dropped
drastically at that time. The only protected settlements were in tubac and
Tucson Don Ignacio zuniga, commander of the northern Sonora. Presidio's
reported that thousands of people had lost their lives and many fled south
as a result of Apache attacks. By 1849, the people of the procedure of two
back and the pueblo of Tumaco Cody had moved to Tucson. Another incentive
to leave the Apache ridden lands was the discovery of gold in California,
which induced thousands of mexicanos and scenarios to move west. It is
estimated that not more than 300 Mexicanos were left in Arizona by 1856,
most of whom lived in the southern regions of toxin and two back. But
there were several pioneer families that did endure the rigors of the
harsh living conditions in Tucson
mm hmm
mm.
Mhm
mhm. Within a few years, the population of both areas increased to 1500 or
2000 is some of the Spanish ex soldiers return to their fields and the
Mexicano Gold Diggers drifted back from California to the minds of Arizona.
From 1821 to 1848, Arizona was part of Mexico. However, almost half of
the entire northern portion of Mexico had been annexed by the United
States. At the outcome of the war with Mexico between the periods of 1846
and 1848, the territory taken over in that war became the southwestern
United States, which included the states of California, Nevada, Utah nuevo
Mexico and Arizona, north of the Gila River. In 1850 for the United States
acquired the northern portion of Sonora. Under the Gadsden purchase for
$10 million. The 45,000 sq mi acquired became Southern Arizona and a
portion of New Mexico and officially became part of the new Mexican
territory.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the war between the us and
Mexico in 1848 guaranteed remaining mexicanos the enjoyment of all rights
of citizens, including the protection of liberty, property and religion.
But in spite of these guarantees the Mexicanos were subjected to economic
exploitation, social and political discrimination, property, rights were
violated and cultural heritage, language and customs came under attack as
lynchings of mexican has increased protection under the law became a
mockery in many mexican communities During the 1850s and 1860s Arizona and
Sonora were visited by Adventurers. Land speculators, mining capitalists
and filibusters whose primary purpose was to acquire more Sonoran land.
Many of these anglo americans believed in manifest destiny, the idea that
God had destined them to own and occupy all of the land promotion to ocean.
One of the supporters of the idea of manifest destiny was Sylvester Maori
maori. Like many anglo americans in Arizona envisioned the anglo
occupation of Sonora, void of any mexicano population. He was quoted as
saying the Apache indian is preparing Sonora for a rule of a higher
civilization than the mexican in the past half century, the mexican
element has disappeared from what is now called Arizona. Before the
devastating career of the Apache, it is everyday retreating further south
leaving to us when it is right for our possessions, the territory without
population. As a result of such feelings, Anglo americans in southern
Arizona assisted the Apache in attacking sonoran pueblos by providing arms
supplies and sanctuary through private treaties. In 1857, Henry Crabbe, a
private citizen from California marched into Sonora with 100 well armed
men and attempted a filibuster a move to overthrow the Sonoran government
by force, Henry crabs expedition failed and he and his men were executed.
This incident intensified hostilities between the mexicano and the anglo
americans living in Arizona. The angles in retaliation, publicly advocated
the expulsion of all mexicanos from Arizona Mexicano workers, fearful of
the anglo american retaliation, fled across the border, abandoning Arizona
and paralyzing the minds and the economy. Despite continuing anglo
mexicano conflicts, the mexicano continued to contribute to the economic
development of Arizona. In the 1860s and 1870s, the Mexicano comprised
more than 50% of Arizona's population. Thus the impact of these people in
Arizona occurred and continued after annexation by the United States After
the Gadsden purchase of 1850. For there were many Mexicano stockman who
operated large spreads in southern Arizona. Among them were the oteros
Robbins, their models, las azaleas and the Aguirre family's. There were
also hundreds of small homesteads owned by mexicano settlers who lived in
a rural life of independence and self subsistence and were dedicated to
farming as well as the raising of livestock.
Much of the american cowboy and ranching culture of today comes from the
hispanic Mexicano heritage. From the mexicano cowboy came the horn saddles
, roping techniques, branding, trail drives, roundups and stockman
associations, terms such as bronco, lasso larry rodeo, corral dalliance
chaps came from the mexicano cowboys, spanish language.
Mm
Yeah, yeah.
Along with the cowboy came to sheep herder and the beginning of the
present day sheep industry in Apache County Arizona, It was started in
1861 by Juan Candelaria who came from Mexico to the present day town of
Montrose juan and his brothers were the largest sheep owners and taxpayers
in Apache County
to protect their holdings during the territorial period. The mexicanos of
Arizona contributed to the task of pacifying the apaches by joining. the
Arizona Volunteers. In 18 86 the Arizona Territorial Legislature created
five military companies for the purpose of subduing the Apaches. Three of
these five companies, companies A E. N. F. Were composed solely of
Mexicano Volunteers who had years of experience in fighting the Apache.
They endured months of hardship and were ill equipped clothes and
malnourished despite these harsh conditions. Companies A any were credited
by the junk general of the territory of Arizona with killing or capturing
100 patches in a nine month period.
Despite the Apache, the Mexicanos agricultural and ranching contributions
played an important role in the industrial development of territorial
Arizona
at that time, packed trains were the principal means of transportation and
the Guerreros, or Mexicano freighters were an extremely efficient and
economical mode of transporting goods. These freighters risk their lives
daily to supply goods and equipment to the pioneer towns, the minds, the
industries and the military posts in Arizona operations from Tucson to san
Diego and y. Mr toxin were common. Two of the most successful framing
businesses in Arizona were owned by the Aguirre brothers and esteban Ochoa.
Later when the railroads replaced the pack trains, they lost thousands of
dollars in business when
the railroads finally came to Arizona, it was the Mexican on the chinese
laborers who laid the foundation for the construction of the southern
pacific railroad. Since the 1880s, Mexicano laborers have made up to 70%
of the section crews and 90% of the extra gangs crews. They worked as
watchmen and repaired and maintained the railroad tracks while working on
the lines. The Mexicano laborers and their families lived in box cars and
tents and many of them settled in Arizona. Mhm When the Southern Pacific
Railroad completed its line to Casa Grande in 1879, it discharged 1500
Mexican workers. Many of these workers remained in the phoenix area. The
mexican miners played an important role in the economic development of
Arizona's mining industry. The santa rita silver and compromise in western
New Mexico and became the most important minds in southwestern America. It
was here in the 1880s that the techniques of copper mining were first
developed by the Mexican girls in the same area which included the border
near Arizona. These miners were already adapted to the rough terrain and
knew the practical applications of the resources in their environment.
They were familiar with the silver and copper ores and could prepare or
extract them by even the simplest of methods. Mexicans were dispersed
throughout Arizona as they worked the mines in the regions of Patagonia to
back cerro colorado, the santa rita mountains, the santa Cruz Valley, Aro
Morency globe, Miami and Clifton's. These mining towns stood as tributes
to the mexicano miners abilities and great skills in extracting valuable
ore from the earth. But in spite of their contributions, the mexicano face
constant discrimination in the mining industry. A double wage standard
persisted among the mexicano and the anglo american miner, he was
disdained by anglo organized labor exploited by the mine owner and was
labeled a foreigner and un american because of the differences in his
customs, culture, language and religion. The mine managers, however, had
to rely heavily on mexicano labor during the early mining period. It was
the extreme climate, the lack of transportation and the Apache menace,
which discouraged anglo americans from entering the Arizona territory.
Therefore, it was essential to rely on the mexicano labor to build and
develop a mining economy. Hostilities between Mexicano and Anglo miners
continue to surface elsewhere. In May of 1863, gold was discovered in the
central mountains of Arizona. When news of this discovery spread, the
weaver district became swarm with hundreds of prospectors from la paz
California, Nevada, santa fe Albuquerque and Sonora. The walker mining
district became the anglo camp and the weaver district was known as the
Mexican camp and was often referred to as Greece er ville. The walker
weaver districts immediately started practicing discrimination against
mexicano prospectors. They were not allowed to own property in this
district and they could only work for an anglo claim holder. This claim
holder was then held financially responsible for any depredations
committed by the mexicano minor.
As feelings between the angle and the mexican has intensified robberies
and murders and the districts were quickly blamed on the mexicanos, many
of whom were forced out of the area by well armed vigilante groups
as in other territories and states in the southwest. Mexicanos in Arizona
had to fight the land. Grand battle Grants in the Arizona territory were
guaranteed by the Gats and Purchase Treaty of 1854. But controversies
characterized by fraud and delay continued to plague Mexicanos who
eventually lost the majority of their land rights. Anglo american
speculators gained control of titles and asked the government to confirm
their ownership, but the surveyor general reported in 18 87 that many of
these documents were fabricated and were presented as authentic documents
to verify doubtful deeds. Consequently, the task of searching and
confirming these land grants Took nearly 50 years.
However, the Mexicano influence was evident during the territorial period.
In Arizona, these pioneers had established communities throughout Arizona
prior to the establishment of Anglo american town sites. The first pioneer
farmers and settlers in the Florence area where mexicanos. Early land
records indicate that Mexicano families as early as the 1850s had begun
ranching the floodplain areas south of the Gila River near the vicinity of
present day Florence.
The earliest known farming Pioneer who formally recorded a claim was
Steven Ramirez. The claim for 160 acres was filed on March two,
In 1868, 8, other Mexican families filed claims to their farming land. One
of them Raphael science originally owned the same quarter section of the
land that became known as the federally patented Florence town site. By
1870, the Mexicano population comprised nearly half of the Florence
population. Many of these settlers were laborers, businessmen and farmers
and were responsible for the planning and construction of the 1st Catholic
Church in Central Arizona. In 1868 and 1870, the Mexicano provided the
labor for the construction of the first three major canals and the
Montezuma Canal in Florence. These canals provided a dependable irrigation
supply and became a major factor in the development of agriculture. In and
around Florence. The town of suffered was officially settled in 1874 by a
small group of Anglo American farmers, but prior to their arrival, the
first settlers in the Graham County portion of the Hill, a valley were
Mexicanos. These farmers started a small settlement known as El pueblo
Viejo or san Jose. Also living in Graham County was a well known pioneer.
Pedro mitch Elena Pedro was a popular figure in Solomon ville and other
Graham county communities. Despite local conflicts, he was appointed and
elected to various local public offices, including Deputy clerk for the
District court of Solomon Clerk of the board of supervisors and county
recorder. He also served as the official spanish court interpreter for
both the district and U. S. Courts. In 1894, he was appointed to the
position of postmaster of Solomon Mitchell Enna is the best known mexicano
elected official in Graham County in Apache County. The Mexicano pioneers
settled the communities which are now known as ST john's and around valley.
The first mexicano settlers to enter this area was the juan baca and
among well Candelaria families. Later they were followed by other mexican
families.
Mhm, mm hmm, mm hmm.
In the late 1870s, Anglo settlers arrived in southern near the Mexicano
communities of control San Juan and by Arredondo hostilities in these
areas between these two groups increased as anglo settlers encroached on
the land and water rights of the mexicano pioneers. They also established
segregated schools. The Mexicano pioneers in Apache County face constant
harassment from texas, cowboys who had no qualms about riding into the
mexicano communities to intimidate the residents and to shoot up the town.
There was a more peaceful situation in Yuma County where Francisco and
Dolores Contreras decided to settle. They were the first mexicana family.
They came to live near the present town side of huma. The Contreras with
their nine Children came to the area to farm raise cattle and to prospect
for gold. In 18 69 the first catholic church was built by the Mexicano
pioneers as the town expanded these mexicanos and their families
contributed to the political and economic development of huma. Leading the
pioneers was Jose Maria Redondo. He established the largest ranch in
western Arizona with over 2500 head of cattle and over 2000 acres of
cultivated land. He also started irrigation in the valley by building 27
miles of canals for large scale irrigation. Redondo success followed him
into the political arena In 1873, he defeated Michael Goldwater for a seat
in the territorial legislature. He served in both houses of the
legislature in 1875 and 1877. He also served as the mayor of huma and with
the county board of supervisors for seven years
in central Arizona, the mexicano was playing a major role in the
settlement and development of the phoenix area Records show that the
Mexicano had arrived in the Salt River Valley in large numbers in the late
1860s and early 1870s, they were already present when the phoenix
settlement was beginning to grow. By 18 70 mexicanos comprise nearly half
of the valley's 240 residents and it was the mexicano who contributed the
necessary labor and technical ability for reclamation of the valley's
lands. Records show that they re escalated prehistoric, a hokum Indian
canals forming and extending the Salt River Valley canal, the Maricopa
canal and the grand canal constructed on the north side of the Salt River.
Mexican farmers also constructed several small canals and made a
controlled and dependable supply of water available to valley farmers.
This essential water distribution system constructed by the mexican worker
was the early beginning of today's Salt River project.
Mexicano workers also cleared the Phoenix town site and helped in the
first survey directed by William A. Hancock in 1870. they grated the
roadbeds and laid the tracks for the Maricopa and phoenix railroad. These
tracks connected the city of phoenix with the southern pacific main line
at Maricopa. They also laid the tracks for the mule drawn street cars of
the phoenix street railway company, which brought public transportation to
phoenix in 18 87. In southern Arizona, however, the mexicano dominated the
social, economic and political institutions in the pueblo of toxin. Many
of these mexicano pioneer families were very prominent, influential and
wealthy. Jackson was a trading center for Arizona Sonora and the Southwest
goods and supplies needed by civilians, miners and ranchers and the
military were brought in by mexican oh, merchants and freighters. Since
most of these goods came from Mexico, the mexicano businessman dominated
the trade In the 1860s and 1870s, relations between the Mexicano and
Anglos and Saxons were cordial. There are several reasons for this
friendly relationship during this period. Toxins population was
predominantly Mexicano. The Anglo American population was still a minority.
The first anglo american arrivals married mexicana women, many of whom
belonged to the most elite and wealthy. Mexicano families in Tucson, the
best known of the prominent mexican. As a Texan was Estevan ochoa what was
called the king of the freighting business in Arizona. He was admired
throughout the territory for his initiative and improvements and for the
efforts he would bring to the community Rachel was a supporter of public
education and was instrumental in writing and passing the 1871 legislative
build to fund public schools in Arizona, he served as chairman of the
educational committee and donated the land and money and supervised the
construction of the first modern school in Arizona esta. Monaco's
political aspirations led him to become president of the Tucson School
board and representative to the territorial legislature in 18 68 18 71 and
18 77. Ochoa also became the last elected mexicano mayor of Toxin in 18 75.
Another notable mexicano pioneer in the Tucson area was Mariano Samaniego
who achieved prominence as a freighter, cattle rancher and public official.
He was appointed pima county assessor and served on the Tucson City
council. Mariano Samaniego was a founding member of the University Board
of Regions and also served on the territorial legislature in 1877,
In 1895,
Carlos Ignacio Velasco was a lawyer Superior Court judge and state
legislator in the state of Sonora Mexico Carlos established in front
terrace. So a weekly spanish newspapers circulated throughout Arizona and
Sonora Carlos Velasco was also the creator and founder of the Alleanza is
panamericana. His reputation as a defender of the mexicanos rights became
legendary
By the 1880s. The harmony that had existed between the Mexicanos and the
Anglos had begun to erode On March 20, the chariots of fire rolled into
toxin. The arrival of the first railroad became the turning point for the
old pueblo and the mexicano community. The Southern pacific railroad
brought an influx of anglo americans and started an era of rapid growth
and change in the toxin community. A couple of years earlier, Mexicanos
made up nearly 70% of toxins population, but by 1881, only one year after
the arrival of the railroad, the population had declined to 43%.
The railroad brought many wealthy anglo american entrepreneurs who came to
invest in agriculture, retailing, mining and ranching. Local mexicano
merchants soon last out because they could not compete. The railroad also
brought in more anglo women. As intermarriages declined, the mexican elite
gradually were excluded from anglo social events. As the business district
expanded, the mexican families were bought out or forced out of the
expansion of the business district forced the mexicans to move south.
Anglo americans prefer to move north away from the mexican families.
In the 1890s, a major depression affected the economy of Arizona jobs were
scarce and competition between the two groups created hostilities. The
Mexicanos were the last hired in the first fired Racial tension in Tucson
increased when a nativist movement was started in Tucson. In the 1890s,
Anglo Americans blamed the Mexicanos for the unemployment and the
depression of 1894 in Tucson. The Nativists formed the American Protection
Association.
Nativism personified the idea that United States citizens who were not
protestant and whose ancestry was not northern or Western european should
be denied influencing US culture policies and society in order to counter
discrimination practices. The mexicano community leaders in toxin organize
the Alleanza is panamericana. The purpose of this organization was to
ensure political representation and economic influence in a town that was
rapidly changing by incoming anglo americans de Lanza provided life
insurance, social and cultural activities and organized youth chapters
through its political front, the Mexicano Democratic Party, the Alleanza
successfully elected to mexicanos to public office Mariano Samaniego as a
member of the Pima county board of supervisors and Navarre Pacheco is
county sheriff. Alleanza lodges were quickly established throughout the
Arizona territory in such places as phoenix jerome congress, Tempe nogales
, Yuma, Clifton's Marenzi and Metcalf. By the end of the 1880s, the
Mexicanos have left their mark on territorial Arizona. They had survived
the rigors of the frontier, including Apache warfare as freighters. They
were the lifeline necessary for the development of Arizona's industries.
They laid the foundation of economic development in mining, agriculture
and the sheep and cattle industries. They were the backbone for the
construction of the railroads, reclamation and irrigation projects for
farming. They, the mexicanos built the towns and roads so vital to
Arizona's territory. However, the mexican population in general did not
receive the economic rewards of their sweat and labor By the 1900s, the
Anglo American became the dominant population in Arizona.
Yeah.
Mhm
Right.
Oh yeah, yeah, mm hmm.
Yeah. Uh huh. Mhm mm
Right. Yeah,
Yeah.
Mhm.
Yeah.