Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Tucson’s Historic Alameda-Stone Cemetery and The Transformation of a Remote Outpost into an Urban City Michael Heilen and Marlesa A. Gray, series editors Volume 3 History and Archaeology of the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Period, 1875–2006 Edited by Marlesa A. Gray and Karen K. Swope With contributions by Karen K. Swope, R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, Tamara L. Leher, Kerry L. Sagebiel, Marlesa A. Gray, Karl J. Reinhard, Nancy Odegaard, David Smith, and Gina Watkinson Submitted to Roger Anyon Pima County Cultural Resources and Historic Preservation Office Tucson, Arizona Contract No. 07-73-S-138479-0806 Technical Report 10-97 Statistical Research, Inc. Tucson, Arizona November 2010 Contents List of Figures..................................................................................................................................... xiii List of Tables....................................................................................................................................... xix 1. Introduction to the Postcemetery Component of the Joint Courts Complex Archaeological Project, by Karen K. Swope, R. Scott Plumlee, and Marlesa A. Gray...........................................................1 Research Themes for the Postcemetery Archaeological Investigations . ............................................... 2 Block and Lot Development in the Project Area..................................................................................... 3 Volume Organization............................................................................................................................... 4 2. Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information, by R. Scott Plumlee and Carrie J. Gregory......5 Historical Data Sources........................................................................................................................... 5 Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps .......................................................................................................... 5 Historical Photographs...................................................................................................................... 6 Federal Censuses............................................................................................................................... 6 Tucson City Directories.................................................................................................................... 6 Property-Ownership Records............................................................................................................ 7 Pima County Assessment Rolls ....................................................................................................... 7 Information from Historical Photographs............................................................................................... 7 1887–1890........................................................................................................................................ 8 1890–1892........................................................................................................................................ 8 1896–1897........................................................................................................................................ 8 1904–1908........................................................................................................................................ 9 May 10, 1924.................................................................................................................................... 9 1937–1939........................................................................................................................................ 9 1947.................................................................................................................................................. 9 1953–1957...................................................................................................................................... 10 1967–1971...................................................................................................................................... 10 3. Postcemetery Archaeological Feature Types and Architectural Types in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area, by R. Scott Plumlee and Carrie J. Gregory...............................................27 Archaeological Feature Types .............................................................................................................. 27 Animal Burials................................................................................................................................ 27 Buildings......................................................................................................................................... 27 Landscaping Features..................................................................................................................... 27 Postholes......................................................................................................................................... 28 Refuse Pits and Refuse Deposits.................................................................................................... 28 Privy Pits and Cesspits.................................................................................................................... 28 Characteristics of Privies and Other Subsurface Sewage-Treatment Structures...................... 29 The History of Tucson’s Privies .............................................................................................. 29 The Archaeology of Privies in Tucson .................................................................................... 31 Privies in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area.................................................................... 31 Architectural Types during the Postcemetery Period............................................................................ 32 Spanish Colonial (ca. 1600–1900).................................................................................................. 32 Folk Victorian (ca. 1870–1910)...................................................................................................... 32 Egyptian Revival (ca. 1830–1930).................................................................................................. 32 iii Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Craftsman (ca. 1900–1930)............................................................................................................. 33 Spanish Eclectic (ca. 1915–1940)................................................................................................... 33 Art Deco (ca. 1920–1940).............................................................................................................. 33 4. Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component, by William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, and Kerry L. Sagebiel.........................................39 Ceramic Tablewares.............................................................................................................................. 39 Native American Ceramics............................................................................................................. 40 Glass and Metal Tablewares.................................................................................................................. 41 Food and Beverage Containers....................................................................................................... 42 Liquor Bottles................................................................................................................................. 42 Clothing and Clothing Fasteners........................................................................................................... 43 Footwear................................................................................................................................................ 44 Personal Artifacts.................................................................................................................................. 44 Medicine Containers and Medicines..................................................................................................... 45 Recreation-Related Artifacts................................................................................................................. 46 Smoking Paraphernalia ........................................................................................................................ 47 Communication-Related Artifacts......................................................................................................... 47 Weaponry............................................................................................................................................... 47 Commerce-Related Artifacts................................................................................................................. 47 Transportation-Related Artifacts........................................................................................................... 48 Construction-Material, Hardware-Related, Machinery-Related, and Utilities-Related Artifacts ........ 48 Lighting and Electrical Equipment ...................................................................................................... 49 Household Artifacts . ............................................................................................................................ 49 Faunal Remains..................................................................................................................................... 49 Floral Remains...................................................................................................................................... 50 Pollen Samples................................................................................................................................ 50 5. Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area, by R. Scott Plumlee and Shari L. Tiedens...............................................................................................................................57 Miltenberg (East Council) Street........................................................................................................... 57 Grossetta Avenue................................................................................................................................... 58 Stone Avenue......................................................................................................................................... 59 Wooden Curb 707........................................................................................................................... 60 Toole Avenue......................................................................................................................................... 60 Alameda Street...................................................................................................................................... 61 Block 254, Alley.................................................................................................................................... 62 Posthole 10446................................................................................................................................ 62 Posthole 26798................................................................................................................................ 62 Posthole 26800................................................................................................................................ 62 Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area............................................................................... 63 Electrical Utility Features............................................................................................................... 63 Fiber-Optic-Cable Features............................................................................................................. 64 Natural-Gas Utility Features........................................................................................................... 64 Sewer Utility Features..................................................................................................................... 65 Water Utility Features..................................................................................................................... 66 6. Block 252, Lot 1, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, and Tamara L. Leher...................................................................................................................... 81 Commercial Enterprises........................................................................................................................ 81 Baum and Adamson........................................................................................................................ 81 Other Businesses............................................................................................................................. 82 Architectural Descriptions..................................................................................................................... 82 iv Contents 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson (Buildings L and O)........................................... 82 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................... 83 Building L (294 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson)............................................................... 83 Building O (296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson)............................................................... 83 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................... 85 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary................................................................................................ 85 7. Block 252, Lot 2, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher............................................89 Residential History: 294 N. Stone Avenue............................................................................................ 89 Commercial History: 296 N. Stone Avenue and 20–28 Toole Avenue.................................................. 90 Biographies............................................................................................................................................ 90 Siewert............................................................................................................................................ 90 Burcham.......................................................................................................................................... 91 Commercial Enterprises........................................................................................................................ 91 Baum and Adamson ....................................................................................................................... 91 Larry’s Coffee Cup......................................................................................................................... 91 Other Businesses............................................................................................................................. 92 Architectural Descriptions..................................................................................................................... 92 294 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Structure (No Building Number)............................................. 92 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson (Buildings L and O) . ........................................ 92 24–28 Toole Avenue, Gouley Burcham Company (Building X).................................................... 92 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................... 93 Animal Burial 22345...................................................................................................................... 93 Building L (294 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) .............................................................. 93 Building O (296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) ............................................................. 93 Building X (24–28 Toole Avenue, Gouley Burcham Company).................................................... 93 Privy Pit 22355............................................................................................................................... 93 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................... 94 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary................................................................................................ 98 8. Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only), by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher.............................................................................................................................................. 107 Residential History: 286 N. Stone Avenue.......................................................................................... 107 Commercial History: 286 and 296 N. Stone Avenue.......................................................................... 108 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 108 Fleishman . ................................................................................................................................... 108 Brown and Steward . .................................................................................................................... 108 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 109 Baum and Adamson ..................................................................................................................... 109 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 109 286 N. Stone Avenue, Fred and Amelia Steward (Building H).................................................... 109 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson (Buildings L and O) . ...................................... 109 24–28 Toole Avenue, Gouley Burcham Company (Building X) ................................................. 109 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 109 Building H (286 N. Stone Avenue, Fred and Amelia Steward).................................................... 109 Building M (294 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson)............................................................ 110 Building O (294–296 North Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) .............................................. 111 Cesspit 10099................................................................................................................................ 111 v Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Landscaping Feature 381.............................................................................................................. 111 Landscaping Feature 5404............................................................................................................ 111 Landscaping Feature 5406............................................................................................................ 111 Pit 5401......................................................................................................................................... 112 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 112 Block 252, Lot 3........................................................................................................................... 112 Block 252, Lot 4a.......................................................................................................................... 113 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 118 9. Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only), by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher.......................................................................................................... 127 Residential History: 270 N. Stone Avenue.......................................................................................... 127 Commercial History: 280 and 286 N. Stone Avenue; 40 Toole Avenue.............................................. 128 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 129 Brena............................................................................................................................................. 129 Fleishman...................................................................................................................................... 129 Mariscal........................................................................................................................................ 130 Brown and Steward....................................................................................................................... 130 Breathitt........................................................................................................................................ 131 Clyne............................................................................................................................................. 132 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 132 Frank Craycroft Plumbing and Heating........................................................................................ 132 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson (Building O)..................................................... 132 Bowyer Motor Company ............................................................................................................. 133 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 133 270 N. Stone Avenue, John and Dolores Brown (Building G)..................................................... 133 2701/2 N. Stone Avenue, John and Dolores Brown (No Building Number)................................. 133 80 Grossetta Avenue, John and Dolores Brown (No Building Number)...................................... 133 40 Toole Avenue, Frank Craycroft Plumbing and Heating (No Building Number)..................... 133 280 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company (Building N)..................................................... 134 Baum and Adamson ..................................................................................................................... 134 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 134 Animal Burial 22393.................................................................................................................... 134 Building G (270 N. Stone Avenue, John and Dolores Brown)..................................................... 134 Building N (280 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company)..................................................... 135 Building O (294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) ................................................... 136 Building R (294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson[Features 7622 and 22478]).......... 136 Landscaping Feature 7632............................................................................................................ 136 Posthole 10186.............................................................................................................................. 136 Posthole 13737.............................................................................................................................. 137 Posthole 13738.............................................................................................................................. 137 Privy Pit 10095............................................................................................................................. 137 Refuse Pit 719............................................................................................................................... 137 Refuse Pit 17549........................................................................................................................... 137 Refuse Pit 22398........................................................................................................................... 138 Refuse Pit 22399........................................................................................................................... 138 Refuse Pit 22406........................................................................................................................... 138 Refuse Pit 22432........................................................................................................................... 138 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 138 Block 252, Lot 4b......................................................................................................................... 138 vi Contents Block 252, Lot 5........................................................................................................................... 139 Block 252, Lot 9b......................................................................................................................... 142 Block 252, Lot 10......................................................................................................................... 143 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 148 10. Block 252, Lots 6 and 7, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher....... 165 Residential History: 250 N. Stone Avenue.......................................................................................... 165 Commercial History: 240 N. Stone Avenue and 250–252 N. Stone Avenue....................................... 166 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 167 Finley............................................................................................................................................ 167 Corbett.......................................................................................................................................... 167 Clyne............................................................................................................................................. 168 Murphey........................................................................................................................................ 168 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 169 Old Pueblo Bowling Alley............................................................................................................ 169 Bowyer Motor Company.............................................................................................................. 169 Sam Levitz.................................................................................................................................... 169 First National Bank of Arizona..................................................................................................... 170 Southern Arizona Bank and Trust................................................................................................. 170 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 171 250 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Structure (Building Q)........................................................... 171 2501/2 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Garage (No Building Number)........................................... 171 250–252 N. Stone Avenue, Old Pueblo Bowling and Billiard Parlor (Building J)....................... 171 240 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company (Building J)...................................................... 172 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 172 Building J (240 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company)...................................................... 172 Building Q (250 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Structure)........................................................... 173 Cesspit 7893.................................................................................................................................. 173 Cesspit 7897.................................................................................................................................. 173 Cesspit 7958.................................................................................................................................. 174 Pit 22731....................................................................................................................................... 174 Privy Pit 16500............................................................................................................................. 174 Refuse Pit 7841 . .......................................................................................................................... 175 Refuse Pit 7848 . .......................................................................................................................... 175 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 175 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 183 11. Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher....................... 209 Residential History: 52/58 Miltenberg Street, 78 Grossetta Avenue................................................... 209 Residential History: 36–54 Miltenberg Street, 76–82 Grossetta Avenue............................................ 210 Commercial History: Parking Lot....................................................................................................... 211 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 212 Goldbaum...................................................................................................................................... 212 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 212 Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station . .......................................................................................... 212 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 212 52/58 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure – South (Building C).......................................... 212 vii Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 78/80–82 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure – North (Building D).................................... 213 36–54 Miltenberg Street, 76–78 Grossetta Avenue, Brewster Apartments/Melrose Court.......... 213 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 213 Animal Burial 11404.................................................................................................................... 213 Building W.................................................................................................................................... 214 Building C..................................................................................................................................... 214 Building D..................................................................................................................................... 215 Building S..................................................................................................................................... 215 Drain 17136.................................................................................................................................. 216 Posthole 7565................................................................................................................................ 216 Privy Pit 650................................................................................................................................. 216 Refuse Deposit 642....................................................................................................................... 217 Refuse Pit 7564............................................................................................................................. 217 Refuse Pit 7841............................................................................................................................. 217 Refuse Pit 7848............................................................................................................................. 217 Wall 7621...................................................................................................................................... 218 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 218 Block 252, Lot 11......................................................................................................................... 218 Block 252, Lot 12......................................................................................................................... 221 Block 252, Lot 13......................................................................................................................... 222 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 235 12. Block 253, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, and Tamara L. Leher........................................................................................................................... 255 Commercial History: “Cor. Miltenberg, Grossetta, Toole,” 79 Toole................................................. 255 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 255 Fairbanks....................................................................................................................................... 255 Drachman...................................................................................................................................... 256 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 256 Seattle Brewing and Malting Company........................................................................................ 256 The City Laundry.......................................................................................................................... 257 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 257 79 Miltenberg Street, Troy Laundry/Seattle Brewing and Malting/City Laundry (Building K).. 257 Corner of Miltenberg Street and Toole Avenue, Commercial Stable/Storage (Building K)......... 258 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 259 Building K (79 Miltenberg, Troy Laundry/Seattle Brewing and Malting/City Laundry)............ 259 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 259 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 260 13. Block 254, Lot 1, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, and Tamara L. Leher.................................................................................................................... 263 Residential History: 220 N. Stone Avenue, 223 N. Stone Avenue...................................................... 263 Commercial History: 208, 210, and 220 N. Stone Avenue................................................................. 264 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 264 Mariscal........................................................................................................................................ 264 Smith............................................................................................................................................. 264 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 266 Bowyer Motor Company.............................................................................................................. 266 Durazzo’s Union Oil 76 Station . ................................................................................................. 266 Tucson Newspapers, Inc............................................................................................................... 266 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 266 220/223 N. Stone Avenue, Marcus Smith (No Building Number)............................................... 266 viii Contents 220 /2 N. Stone Avenue, Marcus Smith (No Building Number)................................................... 267 220 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company Service Station (No Building Number)........... 267 2201/2 N. Stone Avenue, Truck Repair (No Building Number).................................................... 267 210 N. Stone Avenue, Durazzo’s Union Oil 76 (No Building Number)....................................... 268 210 N. Stone Avenue, Tucson Newspapers (Building I)............................................................... 268 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 268 Building I (210 N. Stone Avenue, Tucson Newspapers)............................................................... 268 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 269 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 269 1 14. Block 254, Lot 2, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher.......................................................................................................... 275 Residential History: 208 N. Stone Avenue.......................................................................................... 275 Commercial History: 208 N. Stone Avenue........................................................................................ 275 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 276 Tenney........................................................................................................................................... 276 Underwood.................................................................................................................................... 276 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 277 Tucson Newspapers, Inc. ............................................................................................................. 277 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 277 208 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Structure (No Building Number)........................................... 277 208 N. Stone Avenue, Tucson Newspapers (Building I)............................................................... 277 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 278 Building I (210 N. Stone Avenue, Tucson Newspapers) ............................................................. 278 Privy Pit 10214............................................................................................................................. 278 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analysis................................................................................... 278 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 280 15. Block 254, Lots 4 and 5, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher.......283 Residential History: 55/57/59 Miltenberg Street, and 46/48/50 Grossetta Avenue............................. 283 Commercial History: 55 E. Council Street.......................................................................................... 285 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 285 Mariscal........................................................................................................................................ 285 Fairbanks....................................................................................................................................... 286 Cochran......................................................................................................................................... 286 Rasmessen..................................................................................................................................... 286 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 288 Powder Puff Beauty Salon............................................................................................................ 288 Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station............................................................................................. 288 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 288 46 Grossetta Avenue, Powder Puff Beauty Salon (Building Z).................................................... 288 461/2 Grossetta Avenue, Outbuilding (Building AA).................................................................... 289 48 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure (Building P)............................................................. 289 45/55 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure (Building Y)....................................................... 289 551/2 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure/Garage (No Building Number)............................ 289 57 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure/Garage (No Building Number)............................... 289 59 Miltenberg Street (50 Grossetta Avenue), Residential Structure (No Building Number)....... 290 48 East Alameda Street, Residential Stable (No Building Number)............................................ 290 55 E. Council (Miltenberg) Street, Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station (Building A)................ 290 ix Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 291 Animal Burial 3284...................................................................................................................... 291 Animal Burial 3285...................................................................................................................... 291 Building A (55 E. Council (Miltenberg) Street, Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station)................ 291 Building P (48 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure)............................................................. 292 Building Y (45/55 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure)....................................................... 292 Building Z (46 Grossetta Avenue, Powder Puff Beauty Salon).................................................... 292 Building AA (461/2 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure/Garage)......................................... 293 Cesspit 3042 . ............................................................................................................................... 293 Landscaping Feature 3374............................................................................................................ 293 Landscaping Feature 3375............................................................................................................ 293 Pit 3180......................................................................................................................................... 293 Pit 10193....................................................................................................................................... 293 Pit 30600....................................................................................................................................... 293 Posthole 4565................................................................................................................................ 294 Refuse Deposit 750....................................................................................................................... 294 Refuse Deposit 3340..................................................................................................................... 294 Refuse Deposit 3364..................................................................................................................... 294 Refuse Pit 746............................................................................................................................... 295 Refuse Pit 2045............................................................................................................................. 295 Refuse Pit 2246............................................................................................................................. 295 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 295 Block 254, Lot 4........................................................................................................................... 295 Block 254, Lot 5........................................................................................................................... 297 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 300 16. Block 254, Lots 6 and 7, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher.......................................... 309 Residential History: 34 E. Alameda Street (Lot 6).............................................................................. 309 Residential History: 48 E. Alameda Street (Lot 7).............................................................................. 310 Commercial History: 38 E. Alameda Street (Lots 6 and 7)................................................................. 311 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 311 Fairbanks....................................................................................................................................... 311 Kelley............................................................................................................................................ 312 Mahoney....................................................................................................................................... 312 Hoff............................................................................................................................................... 313 Wills.............................................................................................................................................. 314 Burcham........................................................................................................................................ 314 Commercial Enterprises...................................................................................................................... 314 Hackett Whiting Motor Company................................................................................................. 314 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 315 34 E. Alameda Street, Lot 6 Residential Structure (Building T).................................................. 315 48 E. Alameda Street, Lot 7 Residential Structure (Building U).................................................. 315 481/2 E. Alameda Street, Buggy House (No Building Number)................................................... 315 38/46 E. Alameda Street, Hackett Whiting Motor Company (Building B).................................. 315 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 316 Building B (38/46 E. Alameda Street, Hackett Whiting Motor Company).................................. 316 Building T (34 E. Alameda Street, Lot 6 Residential Structure).................................................. 316 Building U (48 E. Alameda Street, Lot 7 Residential Structure).................................................. 317 Building BB (Unidentified Postcemetery Structure).................................................................... 319 Cesspit 3040.................................................................................................................................. 319 x Contents Cesspit 3042.................................................................................................................................. 320 Landscaping Feature 76................................................................................................................ 321 Landscaping Feature 79................................................................................................................ 321 Landscaping Feature 81................................................................................................................ 321 Landscaping Feature 520.............................................................................................................. 321 Landscaping Feature 521.............................................................................................................. 322 Landscaping Feature 522.............................................................................................................. 322 Landscaping Feature 523.............................................................................................................. 322 Landscaping Feature 821.............................................................................................................. 322 Landscaping Feature 830..................................................................................................................... 322 Pit 231........................................................................................................................................... 322 Pit 620........................................................................................................................................... 323 Pit 26791....................................................................................................................................... 323 Refuse Pit 518............................................................................................................................... 323 Refuse Pit 531............................................................................................................................... 323 Refuse Pit 623............................................................................................................................... 323 Trench 108.................................................................................................................................... 324 Tunnel 27071................................................................................................................................ 324 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 324 Block 254, Lot 6........................................................................................................................... 324 Block 254, Lot 7........................................................................................................................... 334 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 345 17. Block 255, Lot 1, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher......................................................... 389 Residential History: 37/45/47/49/51 Grossetta Avenue and 77 Miltenberg Street.............................. 389 The Northern Building.................................................................................................................. 389 The Southern Building.................................................................................................................. 390 Archaeological Remains...................................................................................................................... 390 Biographies.......................................................................................................................................... 391 Shibell........................................................................................................................................... 391 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 392 37 Grossetta Avenue, Southern Residential Structure (Building F)............................................. 392 37/47 Grossetta Avenue, Southern Residential Structure (Building F)........................................ 392 45/49 Grossetta Avenue, 77 Miltenberg Street, Northern Residential Structure (Building V)..... 392 49/51 Grossetta Avenue, Northern Residential Structure (Building V)........................................ 393 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 393 Building F (37/47 Grossetta, Southern Residential Structure)..................................................... 393 Building V (45/49/51 Grossetta Avenue, 77 Miltenberg Street, Northern Residential Structure).393 Cesspit 738.................................................................................................................................... 394 Pit 4757......................................................................................................................................... 395 Privy Pit 734................................................................................................................................. 395 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses............................................................................ 396 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 399 18. Block 255, Lot 6, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, and Tamara L. Leher........................................................................................................................... 409 Lot History.......................................................................................................................................... 409 Architectural Descriptions................................................................................................................... 410 45 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure (Building E)............................................................. 410 Archaeological Feature Descriptions.................................................................................................. 410 xi Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Building E (45 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure)............................................................. 410 Pit 5059......................................................................................................................................... 410 Well 5061...................................................................................................................................... 411 Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses.................................................................................. 411 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary.............................................................................................. 411 19. The Postcemetery Component in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area: Summary and Conclusions, by R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher......................................................... 413 Summary of Previous Chapters........................................................................................................... 413 Addressing the Research Questions.................................................................................................... 416 References Cited.................................................................................................................................. 417 Appendix A: Building Histories from Sanborn Maps.............................................................. CD-ROM Appendix B: Historical Photograph Index.............................................................................. CD-ROM Appendix C: Census Records................................................................................................... CD-ROM Appendix D: Project Area Residents........................................................................................ CD-ROM Appendix E: Project Area Businesses...................................................................................... CD-ROM Appendix F: Property Ownership Records.............................................................................. CD-ROM Appendix G: Pima County Tax Assessment Rolls................................................................... CD-ROM Appendix H: Postcemetery Feature Attributes........................................................................ CD-ROM Appendix I: Native American Ceramics................................................................................... CD-ROM Appendix J: Postcemetery Macrobotanical Results................................................................. CD-ROM Appendix K: Pollen and Parasitology Reports......................................................................... CD-ROM Appendix L: Postcemetery Teeth Analysis............................................................................... CD-ROM Appendix M: Mose Kelley Scanned Receipts........................................................................... CD-ROM xii List of Figures Figure 1. Portion of the 1901 Sanborn map of Tucson with the project area overlaid.................................11 Figure 2. The project area in 1904, based on the 1904 Sanborn map of Tucson..........................................12 Figure 3. Portion of the 1909 Sanborn map of Tucson with the project area overlaid.................................13 Figure 4. Portion of the 1919 Sanborn map of Tucson with the project area overlaid.................................14 Figure 5. The project area in 1930, based on the 1930 Sanborn Map of Tucson..........................................15 Figure 6. Portion of the 1947 Sanborn map of Tucson with the project area overlaid.................................16 Figure 7. The project area in 1960, based on the 1960 Sanborn Map of Tucson..........................................17 Figure 8. Project area showing original subdivisions of Blocks 252–255....................................................18 Figure 9. View of the southern project area from the County Courthouse, ca. 1887–1890..........................19 Figure 10. Photograph of downtown Tucson, 1890–1892............................................................................20 Figure 11. A wireframe representation of Figure 10.....................................................................................21 Figure 12. Photograph of the project area, 1896–1897.................................................................................22 Figure 13. Portion of panorama showing project area c. 1904–1908...........................................................23 Figure 14. The first known aerial photograph of the residential period of the project area, 1924................23 Figure 15. Project area between 1937 and 1939...........................................................................................24 Figure 16. Project area in 1947. The photograph shows marked change in the project area........................24 Figure 17. Project area between 1953 and 1957...........................................................................................25 Figure 18. Project area between 1967 and 1971...........................................................................................26 Figure 19. Official map of the 1889 survey of Blocks 252, 253, 254, and 255 by John Gardiner...............68 Figure 20. The front of Old Pueblo Bowling and Billiard Parlor at 250 North Stone Avenue, ca. 1930....................................................................................................................................69 Figure 21. Streets and utilities in a portion of the project area, showing Landscaping Features 29360, 30001, and 30002.........................................................................................................70 Figure 22. Fred and Amelia Steward residence, 286 N. Stone Avenue, ca. 1910.........................................71 Figure 23. Official map of the 1890 survey of Block 254 by George Roskruge..........................................72 Figure 24. Block 252, Lots 6 and 7...............................................................................................................73 xiii Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 25. Block 252, Lots 4a, 4b, and 5......................................................................................................74 Figure 26. Block 252, Lots 2 and 3...............................................................................................................75 Figure 27. Block 254, Lots 6 and 7...............................................................................................................76 Figure 28. Map of alley between Alameda and Council Streets, including utilities in alley and Council Street..................................................................................................................................77 Figure 29. Map of utilities in the project area...............................................................................................78 Figure 30. Works Progress Administration Drain, Feature 176310..............................................................79 Figure 31. Block 252, Lots 1 and 2...............................................................................................................86 Figure 32. Block 252, Lots 1, 2, 3, 4a, 4b, 5, 8, and portions of Lots 9a, 9b, and 10, showing Baum and Adamson Tire and Automotive Company Complex.............................................................87 Figure 33. Baum and Adamson Tire and Automotive Company in 1929; in 1934; ca. the 1940s; in 1969........................................................................................................................................88 Figure 34. Sophie Siewert...........................................................................................................................101 Figure 35. Gouley Burcham........................................................................................................................102 Figure 36. Privy Pit 22355 profile...............................................................................................................103 Figure 37. Soapstone griddle from Block 252, Lot 2, Feature 22355........................................................104 Figure 38. Block 252, Lots 8 and 9a...........................................................................................................120 Figure 39. Block 252, Lots 9b and 10.........................................................................................................121 Figure 40. Japanese pitcher with “Kanji” maker’s mark from Block 252, Lot 3, Feature 10895..............122 Figure 41. The John and Delores Brown residence, 270 N. Stone Avenue................................................152 Figure 42. John N. Brown (1895) and Delores Ybarra Brown (1897) of 270 N. Stone.............................153 Figure 43. Fred Steward, his uncle Henry, and an unidentified man..........................................................154 Figure 44. Fred and daughter, Mildred Steward.........................................................................................154 Figure 45. Animal Burial 22393, Block 252, Lot 10..................................................................................155 Figure 46. Hydraulic Hoist 4578 associated with Building N....................................................................155 Figure 47. E. R. Durkee & Co. salad dressing bottle from Block 252, Lot 10, Feature 22399..................155 Figure 48. Commemorative metal token from Block 252, Lot 10, Feature 22399.....................................156 Figure 49. Block 252, Lots 11 and 12, with adjacent Council Street.........................................................186 Figure 50. From the Arizona Daily Star of February 23, 1955...................................................................187 Figure 51. Feature profile of Privy Pit 16500.............................................................................................188 xiv List of Figures Figure 52. Drawing of garnet from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500......................................................189 Figure 53. Complete doll head from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500....................................................189 Figure 54. Horse collar hame from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500......................................................190 Figure 55. Hand-painted vase from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500.....................................................191 Figure 56. Maltese cross-shaped marker plate from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500............................192 Figure 57. Dwarf olive side-drilled bead from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500....................................192 Figure 58. Block 252, Lot 13......................................................................................................................238 Figure 59. Dog burial from Block 252, Lot 11, Feature 11404..................................................................239 Figure 60. Feature profile of Privy Pit 650.................................................................................................240 Figure 61. Possible original configuration of quadracycle parts from Block 252, Lot 11, Refuse Pit 7841....................................................................................................................................241 Figure 62. Quadracycle parts from Block 252, Lot 11, Refuse Pit 7841....................................................242 Figure 63. Enameled Chinese celadon rice bowl from Block 252, Lot 13, Privy Pit 650..........................243 Figure 64. Cake knife from Block 252, Lot 13, Stairwell 649 (Inventory No. 080006B46.......................243 Figure 65. Mortar from Block 252, Lot 13, Basement 685........................................................................244 Figure 66. Taylor and Williams whiskey bottle from Block 252, Lot 13, Privy Pit 650............................244 Figure 67. Decorative metal button from Block 252, Lot 13, Privy Pit 650...............................................245 Figure 68. Livestock medal from Block 252, Lot 13, Stairwell 649..........................................................245 Figure 69. Arizona seal medallion from Block 252, Lot 13, Basement 685...............................................246 Figure 70. Religious medallion from Block 252, Lot 13, Basement 685...................................................246 Figure 71. Medicine bottle for Fred Fleishman, local pharmacist, from Block 252, Lot 13, Privy Pit 650.........................................................................................................................................247 Figure 72. Worked red abalone shell from Block 252, Lot 13, Refuse Deposit 642..................................247 Figure 73. Block 253 including Grossetta Avenue and Council Street and their intersection....................261 Figure 74. City Laundry Company, Block 253, Lot 1................................................................................262 Figure 75. Blocks 254, Lots 1 and 2...........................................................................................................270 Figure 76. Marcus Aurelius Smith House, Block 254, Lot 1......................................................................271 Figure 77. Durazzo’s Union 76 Station, 210 N. Stone Avenue, and the Tucson Newspapers building, 208 N. Stone Avenue, 1953...................................................................................................272 xv Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 78. Historical photograph of the excavation for the expansion of Tucson Newspapers building............................................................................................................................273 Figure 79. Marcus Aurelius Smith, who lived at 223 North Stone Avenue from ca. 1899 to 1905............274 Figure 80. Philadelphia oval-shaped medicine bottle with original contents from Block 254, Lot 2, Privy Pit 102149...................................................................................................................................281 Figure 81. Block 254, Lots 4 and 5, with adjacent Council Street.............................................................303 Figure 82. Gas station at inception of project.............................................................................................304 Figure 83. Rudolph Rasmessen, owner of Block 254, Lots 4 and 5, 1927–1941, and mayor from 1921 to 1924. 1.....................................................................................................................................304 Figure 84. Dog burial, Feature 3285, Block 254, Lot 4..............................................................................305 Figure 85. Block 254, Lot 7........................................................................................................................351 Figure 86. Mose Kelley, who resided at 48 E. Alameda Street between 1910 and 1912. Inset: One of many Kelley family purchase receipts recovered from Cess Pit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7........352 Figure 87. Feature profiles of Cesspit 3042 and Cesspit 3040...................................................................353 Figure 88. Plan view of Cesspits 3042 and 3040, showing Tunnel 27071 which connected them, Trench 108, which led from Building U (34 E. Alameda Street), and their relationship to Grave Pit 3041.................................................................................................................................................354 Figure 89. Promotional Anheuser-Busch metal bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042....................355 Figure 90. Heinz Chow Chow Pickle bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042....................................356 Figure 91. Fire-affected nursing bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042............................................357 Figure 92. Local (Tucson Ice Cream Co.) milk bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 30420..................358 Figure 93. Dandy flask-shaped “Old Sunnybrook Whiskey” bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042.........................................................................................................................................359 Figure 94. Champagne/wine-shaped “Fratelli Branca” bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042........360 Figure 95. Metal buttons inlaid with green glass-paste jewels from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042........361 Figure 96. Southern Pacific Railroad uniform buttons from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042....................361 Figure 97. Plastic buttons from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042................................................................361 Figure 98. Leather moccasin from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042...........................................................362 Figure 99. Brass “California” pendant/medallion from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 30427.........................363 Figure 100. Hand-painted porcelain accessory from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042...............................363 Figure 101. Gold-framed eyeglasses from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042...............................................364 Figure 102. Rectangular medicine bottle with pills from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042........................364 xvi List of Figures Figure 103. “Happy Hooligan” figurine from Block 254, Lot 6, Cesspit 3042..........................................365 Figure 104. Heinz Worcestershire sauce bottle from Block 254, Lot 7, Cesspit 3040...............................366 Figure 105. Whiskey bottle distributed by Neil and O’Keefe from Block 254, Lot 7, Cesspit 3040.........................................................................................................................................367 Figure 106. Erie Railroad uniform button from Block 254, Lot 7, Cesspit 3040.......................................368 Figure 107. Long Island Railroad uniform button from Block 254, Lot 7, Cesspit 3040..........................368 Figure 108. Levi Strauss fly button from Block 254, Lot 7, Cesspit 30402...............................................368 Figure 109. Poker chip from Block 254, Lot 7, Cesspit 3040....................................................................368 Figure 110. “Dover” sad iron from Block 254, Lot 7, Cesspit 3040..........................................................369 Figure 111. Block 255, Lots 1 and 6, with adjacent Grossetta Ave............................................................402 Figure 112. Charles A. Shibell, who owned Block 255, Lot 1, in 1889–1890...........................................403 Figure 113. Profile of Privy Pit 734, Block 255, Lot 1...............................................................................404 xvii L i s t o f Ta b l e s Table 1. Feature Types Identified in Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Contexts...................................34 Table 2. Summary of Archaeologically Investigated Privies in Tucson........................................................35 Table 3. Summary of Ceramic Body Types Identified in Joint Courts Complex Project Postcemetery Contexts...........................................................................................................................51 Table 4. Nineteenth-Century and Early-Twentieth-Century Ceramic Decorative Techniques Identified in Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Contexts...................................................................52 Table 5. Invertebrate Fauna Identified in Postcemetery Contexts.................................................................53 Table 6. Summary of Identified Plants from Joint Courts Complex Project Postcemetery Contexts...........55 Table 7. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 22355, Block 252, Lot 2.............................................................105 Table 8. Unworked Invertebrate Remains Recovered from Privy Pit 22355, Block 252, Lot 2.................106 Table 9. Identified Ceramic Makers’ Marks in Cesspit 10099, Block 252, Lot 4a.....................................122 Table 10. Medicine-Bottle Manufacturer Summary for Cesspit 10099, Block 252, Lot 4a.......................123 Table 11. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 10099, Block 252, Lot 4a...........................................................124 Table 12. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Privy Pit 10099, Block 252, Lot 4a...............................126 Table 13. Identified Ceramic Makers’ Marks in Privy Pit 10095, Block 252, Lot 5..................................156 Table 14. Medicine-Bottle Manufacturer Summary for Privy Pit 10095, Block 252, Lot 5......................157 Table 15. Shotgun Shells Identified in Privy Pit 10095, Block 252, Lot 5.................................................158 Table 16. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 10095, Block 252, Lot 5...........................................................159 Table 17. Faunal Remains from Refuse Pit 719, Block 252, Lot 5............................................................161 Table 18. Medicine-Bottle Manufacturer Summary for Refuse Pit 22399, Block 252, Lot 10..................162 Table 19. Vertebrate-Faunal Remains from Block 252, Lot 10..................................................................163 Table 20. Faunal Remains from Refuse Deposit 22398, Block 252, Lot 10..............................................163 Table 21. Faunal Remains from Refuse Pit 22399, Block 252, Lot 10......................................................164 Table 22. Matching Ceramic Sets in Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6....................................................193 Table 23. Identified Makers’ Marks in Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6.................................................193 xix Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 24. Medicine Bottle Summary for Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6.............................................194 Table 25. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Fish and Amphibians).....................194 Table 26. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Birds)...............................................197 Table 27. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Very Small and Small Mammals)..................................................................................................................................200 Table 28. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Rabbit-Sized Mammals).................202 Table 29. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Large Mammals).............................204 Table 30. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Very-Large, Extra-Large, and Indeterminate-Sized Mammals)...........................................................................................................206 Table 31. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Feature 16500, Block 252, Lot 6...................................208 Table 32. Faunal Remains from Block 252, Lot 11....................................................................................248 Table 33. Faunal Remains from Block 252, Lot 12....................................................................................248 Table 34. Medicine Bottle Summary for Privy Pit 650, Block 252, Lot 13, Feature 650..........................249 Table 35. Faunal Remains from Refuse Deposit 642, Block 252, Lot 13..................................................250 Table 36. Faunal Remains from Stairwell 649, Block 252, Lot 13.............................................................251 Table 37. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 650, Block 252, Lot 13.............................................................252 Table 38. Faunal Remains from Block 252, Lot 13....................................................................................253 Table 39. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Refuse Deposit 642, Block 252, Lot 13........................253 Table 40. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Basement 685, Block 252, Lot 13.................................254 Table 41. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 10214, Block 254, Lot 2...........................................................282 Table 42. Faunal Remains from Block 254, Lot 4......................................................................................306 Table 43. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Refuse Deposits 3340 and 752 (part of Feature 3364), Block 254, Lots 4 and 5..................................................................................307 Table 44. Faunal Remains from Block 254, Lot 5......................................................................................307 Table 45. Ceramic Makers’ Marks in Cess Pit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6......................................................370 Table 46. Medicine Bottle Summary for Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6..................................................370 Table 47. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Fish and Amphibians)..........................372 Table 48. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Birds)...................................................374 Table 49. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Very Small and Small Mammals)..................................................................................................................................376 xx List of Tables Table 50. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Rabbit-Sized Mammals).....................377 Table 51. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Large Mammals)................................379 Table 52. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Extra-Large and Indeterminate-Sized Mammals)...........................................................................................................380 Table 53. Minimum Number of Individuals for Bird and Rabbit Taxa from Blocks 254 and 255............382 Table 54. Faunal Remains from Block 254, Lot 6......................................................................................382 Table 55. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6.....................................383 Table 56. Identified Makers’ Marks in Cess Pit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7....................................................383 Table 57. Medicine Bottle Summary for Cesspit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7..................................................384 Table 58. Faunal Remains from Block 254, Lot 7......................................................................................385 Table 59. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7...............................................................386 Table 60. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Cesspit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7.....................................388 Table 61. Ceramic Makers’ Marks in Privy Pit 734, Block 255, Lot 1.......................................................405 Table 62. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 734, Block 255, Lot 1...............................................................406 Table 63. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Privy Pit 734, Block 255, Lot 1.....................................408 xxi Chapter 1 Introduction to the Postcemetery Component of the Joint Courts Complex Archaeological Project Karen K. Swope, R. Scott Plumlee, and Marlesa A. Gray Archaeological investigations into urban historical-period sites have the potential to yield important information regarding our recent past, resulting in interpretations of settlement, historical demographics, urban planning and development, use of space, persistence of traditional cultures, adoption of new lifeways through culture contact, health and sanitation, and numerous other lines of inquiry. The archival record plays a role of immeasurable importance in historical archaeological studies. By comparing physical surface and subsurface remains with the written record, a more concise understanding of the past may be achieved. Often, it is possible to correct misperceptions or inaccuracies in the historical record or to recover information that has been lost or was never recorded through this type of multidisciplinary research. Our study of the postcemetery period in the Joint Courts Complex Archaeological Project area explores the historical and cultural processes that allowed reuse of the cemetery parcel. As Tucson transitioned from a remote outpost to an urban city, changing social and community identities and economic forces seemed to drive the evolution of this parcel toward new purposes. In the 70 years after the initial sale of the cemetery lands for development, the character of the project area changed gradually, from largely residential to exclusively commercial, an evolution that we have traced through a variety of historical and archaeological data sets. By 1900, just a decade after the first sale of lots in the project area, the old cemetery property had become a residential neighborhood with 14 houses, exhibiting characteristics unlike those of the older parts of Tucson immediately to the south and west. Southern Pacific Railroad warehouses and other businesses were situated immediately north and east, outside the project area. A few more houses had been added by 1910. Throughout the residential period, the neighborhood was home to both owner-occupants and renters and included single residents and families. Between 1920 and 1930, the shift began from residential to commercial use of the project area. The early shift toward commercial development in the project area was concentrated on previously undeveloped lots near the railroad right-of-way. As the neighborhood transitioned from residential to commercial focus, a number of businesses also came to occupy buildings that had formerly been residences. Over time, these residences were replaced with commercial buildings. By 1930, numerous new commercial buildings had been constructed. Early commercial use of the project area focused on the automobile sales and service industry, and financial establishments moved in after the 1950s. From that time until the inception of this project, changes in downtown Tucson demonstrated the increasing expansion of transportation networks and infrastructure improvements that have characterized growing cities of the western United States. Eventually, Pima County and the City of Tucson collaborated in the planning and development of a courts complex on the project area. Buildings remaining in the project area when this study began were razed, and archaeological excavations were initiated. Because the potential for discovery of human remains was considered to be high throughout the project area, the intensive archaeological investigation that ensued allowed a much larger sample of postcemetery archaeological contexts than is typical in data recovery excavations of turn-of-the-twentiethcentury sites. Nearly every foundation, outbuilding, and associated feature dating from 1890 to 2008 was investigated and documented. The only exceptions occurred outside the boundaries of the cemetery as they were fully recognized, and only in rare or unusual circumstances. This volume reports on our investigation and analysis of the postcemetery period in the project area, based on multiple lines of evidence, including historical context, archaeological data, artifactual analysis, spatial information, and archival data. Some of the data reported here were drawn from the project overview (O’Mack 2005) and archival report (O’Mack 2006), but much research was done after submission of those reports and is reported here for the first time. 1 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Research Themes for the Postcemetery Archaeological Investigations At the outset of this project, little was known regarding documentary evidence of the physical characteristics of the residences, commercial buildings, structures, and below-surface features in the project area. It was expected that subsurface remains would be found that would provide information regarding this period of the project area’s history. Residential features were expected to reveal a picture of life during a transitional period of Tucson’s history. Of particular interest in this regard were the study of ethnic traditions and the expressions of culture contact. Extant commercial features, particularly early ones, were expected to contribute to our understanding of Tucson’s transition to a modern metropolitan center. Research questions pertaining to the postcemetery period were posed in the treatment plan prepared at the outset of the investigation (Beck et al. 2006:10–12; see ?). It quickly became apparent that data would be collected to answer most, if not all, of those questions, and additional questions were posed—and others refined—to address the data at hand. Following are the initial questions, with commentary regarding lines of inquiry that were added later. 1. What can archaeology add to our understanding of the daily lives of the early residents of the project area? What were their cultural, social, and economic connections to their immediate neighbors, to other Tucsonans, and to people and places outside Tucson? Data recovery yielded the material culture necessary to address questions of consumer choice and preference, availability of goods, leisure activities, childhood pursuits, health and sanitation (including a wealth of important information regarding home health care), childhood pursuits, the appearance and equipage of households, outdoor activities, and extralocal connections. 2. What changes can we trace in the ethnic and socioeconomic composition of the neighborhood during its residential period? How does the archaeological evidence for these changes compare with the documentary record? Data recovered in this regard proved informative in the study of ethnic and socioeconomic groups present in the project area, including personal and “other” identities, and their changes over time. Recovered data allowed inquiries into the personal and professional lives of project area property owners and residents. Of particular interest in this regard were data that revealed the behavior of project area residents upon the occasional discovery of buried human remains in the neighborhood. 3. What can archaeology add to our understanding of the evolution of the project area from residential to commercial? Was there a transitional period in which existing residential architecture served commercial purposes? Are there features and artifacts associated with the daily lives of the people who worked in or frequented the area after it became a commercial zone? Interestingly, little material culture remained to inform on the working conditions of laborers in the commercial enterprises of the project area. Material evidence of commercial activities was limited to structural remains and equipment associated with the sales and service industries that operated there. Beyond our expectations, however, was the recovery of much information regarding individuals who both lived and worked in the project area during its transition from residential to commercial use, as well as those who lived in the project area and worked in industries just outside the project area boundaries. Additional discoveries were informative regarding behavior when commercial development in the project area encountered buried human remains. 4. What can we learn about the history of individual long-term businesses by studying changes in architecture and layout? 2 Chapter 1 • Introduction to the Postcemetery Component of the Joint Courts Complex Archaeological Project Much archaeological evidence was recovered that was informative regarding the expansion and repurposing of various commercial buildings in the project area. This information was generally not available in historical photographs or archival records. 5. How did the development of the project area relate to the development of the rest of downtown Tucson? What does an improved understanding of this developmental history tell us about the character of Tucson relative to other western cities? An abundance of archaeological data was recovered to address these questions, as well as many more concerning local trade, long-distance transfer of commodities via the rail connection, and the development of Tucson from a frontier outpost to an urban center. Archaeological features from the postcemetery period included building foundations, basements, evidence of outbuildings, privy pits, refuse deposits, utility trenches, landscaping pits, and pet burials. Archival and archaeological research were combined to reconstruct human activity on some 22 blocks and lots (some lot boundaries changed over time); this development is detailed fully in subsequent chapters of this volume). Our investigations into the postcemetery component were organized with the goal of learning about individual residents and households in what became the Joint Courts Complex project area. It quickly became apparent that this pursuit was complicated by the number of households that resided only briefly in the project area, potentially contributing material-culture deposits that were inseparable from those of others. Nevertheless, it was possible to reconstruct a fairly complete picture of residents and their lives in the neighborhood, and in a handful of cases, the archival evidence and material culture revealed much about particular households. Toward that end, the postexcavation investigations were organized according to legal property boundaries (blocks and lots). A record of the succession of owners and occupants for each block/ lot was obtained through archival research, followed by careful examination of the excavation results from stratified deposits, and analyses were geared toward answering specific questions. Specific excavation techniques employed in postcemetery contexts were dictated by the potential for finding human remains and grave-pit features throughout the project area. Most subsurface features were identified via mechanical stripping, revealing upper strata first as stains in the soil. Once it was determined that a feature was not associated with the cemetery (a grave or burial), excavation proceeded via standard archaeological practice for that type of historical feature (sheet refuse or hollow-filled features, such as refuse pits, privy pits, basements, etc.). A more detailed discussion of the field, laboratory, and analytical methods used with the postcemetery component of the Joint Courts Complex project is included in Volume 2, Chapter 2 of this series. Block and Lot Development in the Project Area The blocks and lots associated with the postcemetery development of the Joint Courts Complex project area were first sold to the public in two separate land sales. The first sale was conducted by the City of Tucson and took place in April of 1889; it consisted of Blocks 252, 253, and 255 (ADC, 15 April 1889:4). The remaining block, Block 254, had been transferred by the city to the control of the Trustees of School District No. 1 in 1881 (AWC, 20 February 1881:4). In March of 1890, after at least one offer to buy the land and turn it into a hotel, the trustees, headed by J. S. Mansfeld, decided to sell the block as lots to the public (ADC, 8 February 1890:4, “A Proposition”). In preparation for these sales, two surveys were commissioned. The first survey was carried out in 1889 by John Gardiner. He defined the limits of Blocks 252 (Lots 1–13), 253, 254, and 255 (Lots 1–15) (Gardiner 1889). The following year, George Roskruge resurveyed Block 254 and divided it into seven lots (Roskruge 1890). In Chapters 6–18, the history of each of these lots is discussed, along with the residents and businesses associated with them, and the archaeological remains that were studied during this investigation. 3 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Volume Organization This volume presents the results of research conducted by historical archaeologists in the postcemetery component of the Joint Courts Complex project area. The results of postcemetery investigations are arranged as follows. In Chapter 2, we discuss the primary data sources that were used during the archival research, concentrating on the photographic record. Chapter 3 provides a general description of archaeological feature types found in the project area, with a detailed discussion of privies and cesspits—both invaluable sources of information about past human behaviors—and the types of architecture present in the neighborhood. A general discussion of artifact types and other physical remains recovered from the project area comprises Chapter 4; in this section, we have not attempted to provide detailed information about all of the artifacts, their histories of manufacture, or technological changes, but have focused on their ability to provide information concerning the project area residents, through their use in determining site chronology, socioeconomic status, cultural identity, and private vs. public behavior. Chapter 5 consists of a detailed history of project area infrastructure during the postcemetery period. This includes a discussion of streets within and bordering the project area and the installation, maintenance, and replacement of various utilities that served the neighborhood. For each street there is a discussion of the history of each street name and any archaeological features that were recovered related to that street. Also included is a discussion of the history and morphology of all utility systems recorded in the project area. Chapters 6–18 are descriptions of the results of our archaeological and archival research arranged by block and lot, so that mini-histories are provided, on the basis of property boundaries that were recognized by neighborhood dwellers. The discussion within each of these chapters is based in part on the blocks and lots as defined in the 1889 and 1890 surveys. The blocks are discussed in numerical order, and lots within each block are discussed within the framework of their historical-period use and ownership. This means that some discussions cover only a single lot each (e.g., Block 252, Lot 2); in other cases, two or more lots are discussed together (e.g., Block 252, Lots 6 and 7). Each discussion of a lot or lot grouping is accompanied by a map showing all of the archaeological features associated with that lot or lot grouping. Lot history is provided, including the history of ownership, as well as a discussion of the residents and businesses that occupied each lot. All ownership information referred to within this section can be found in Appendix F and, unless otherwise noted, this information was taken from the records of the O’Quinn Title and Abstract Company (n.d.). Likewise, all resident information referred to within this section can be found in Appendix D and, unless otherwise noted, was taken from the Tucson city directories or, where applicable, U.S. census records. All commercial information can be found in Appendix E and, unless noted, was taken from the Tucson city directories. Each of the lot histories includes a brief description of the archaeological features associated with the lot or lot grouping, including shape, dimensions, function, and general period of use. Following these descriptions are the related analyses (artifactual, faunal, etc.). At the end of each section is a summary and interpretation of the findings for that lot or lot grouping. Finally, a summary of findings from the postcemetery investigation for the entire project area is presented in Chapter 19, including information that elucidates specific research goals and questions. As will be shown in the remainder of this volume, the postcemetery component of the Joint Courts Complex project area has contributed in an important way to the further understanding of Tucson during the late-nineteenth and twentieth centuries. From the necessity to thoroughly document the project area because of the presence of the cemetery, we have been afforded an unparalleled opportunity to thoroughly investigate a complex, ever-changing neighborhood. 4 C hapter  2 Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information R. Scott Plumlee and Carrie J. Gregory Historical Data Sources Archival research on the postcemetery period was carried out primarily at three locations, all in Tucson: the Arizona Historical Society library; the University of Arizona Library, Special Collections; and the Arizona State Museum library. Also consulted were various records maintained by the City of Tucson Development Services Center, the City of Tucson Department of Transportation (Engineering Division, Maps and Records Section), Tucson Water (Mapping and Records), and the Arizona State Archives, as well as a variety of sources now available on the Internet. In addition to the books, journal and newspaper articles, and unpublished documents cited in this chapter, six sources of information deserve particular discussion at the outset: Sanborn fire insurance maps, historical photographs, U.S. federal censuses, Tucson city directories, property-ownership records, and Pima County assessment rolls. Much of the archival research incorporated in this document was performed by Scott O’Mack during preparation of the initial Joint Courts Complex background-research report (O’Mack 2005). Supplemental archival research was conducted for the data recovery phase of the project. Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps One of the most important sources for the history of the project area during the period of 1900–1960 is a series of detailed maps of downtown Tucson prepared by the Sanborn Map Company of New York. Intended for use by fire insurance underwriters, the Sanborn maps are, in fact, the only maps from the period that consistently and, generally, accurately show the size, configuration, and composition of buildings and other structures in downtown Tucson and other developed parts of town. The maps include many details about the buildings they depict, such as function, construction materials, number of stories, and the locations of windows and doors. Sanborn coverage of downtown Tucson began in 1883, just 3 years after the railroad arrived, but coverage for the project area did not begin until 1901. On the Sanborn maps prepared before 1901 (Sanborn Map Company 1883, 1886, 1889, and 1896), there is coverage of the areas immediately west and south of the project area, as well as a limited area immediately to the east, in the vicinity of the Southern Pacific Railroad depot; the area of the old cemetery is not depicted. The lack of coverage before 1901 (despite the city’s sale of lots within the old cemetery a full decade earlier) is somewhat surprising, especially as photographic evidence from just after the sale clearly shows a number of residences in the project area. To provide a sense of the evolution of the project area during the period of 1900–1960, we include here the corresponding portions of the Sanborn maps of 1901, 1904, 1909, 1919, 1930, 1947, and 1960 (Figures 1–7). The maps of 1901, 1909, 1919, 1947, and 1949 are available as digital files on the Internet, and we have obtained permission to reproduce those we used. However, the 1904, 1930, and 1960 maps (as well as other Sanborn maps [1914, 1922, 1952, and 1957] consulted but not reproduced here) are not available on the Internet, and photocopying or other reproduction of the originals is not permitted. Consequently, we have drafted our own simplified versions of the 1904, 1930, and 1960 maps (see Figures 2, 5, and 7) to help bridge the gaps between the maps that we could reproduce. A detailed summary of the information about buildings in the project area provided by all but one of the available Sanborn maps is included as Appendix A. 5 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Historical Photographs As well as providing a glimpse of the development and land use of the project area, historical photographs were an important adjunct to the Sanborn maps. Together, these two sources provided an unparalleled look at the vanished architecture of the residential period of the project area’s history. Further, their record of the cityscape was invaluable in identifying the function of otherwise unidentified archaeological features. This is particularly true of landscaping features, which could often be directly matched to trees and shrubs visible in historical photographs. Through careful date assignment, historical photographs were an excellent source of information on the project area. A discussion of a select few of these photographs is presented in the following section. Appendix B contains a listing of all the photographs used as sources during the course of the project, their repositories, and their associated date ranges. Federal Censuses Another important source for the history of the project area, particularly its social history, are the federal decennial censuses, which began including the Arizona Territory in 1870. The 1900 Federal Census is the earliest available census that definitely included people living in the project area. The June 1890 Federal Census may also have included the project area, but almost all of that census, including the portion covering the Arizona Territory, was destroyed by an unfortunate chain of events, starting with a fire in the basement of the Commerce Building in Washington, D.C., in 1921 (Blake 1996). This is even more unfortunate because it is likely that several households had indeed moved onto the project area by the time the census was taken. The most recent federal census available to researchers is that of 1930; the 1940 Federal Census will not be released to the public until 2012. Therefore, we have consulted the federal censuses of 1900, 1910, 1920, and 1930 (Bureau of the Census 1900, 1910, 1920, and 1930). Appendix C is a summary of the information about project area residents provided in those censuses. Several characteristics of these data are worth noting. First, the categories of information collected were somewhat different in each census. For each census, we have included every category of potential interest, regardless of whether it was collected in every census. Second, we have excluded a few categories of information appearing in one or more censuses, simply to conserve space and because of their minimal interest (e.g., year of marriage). All categories of information appear in the appendix in the same order as in the census schedules, without any indication of the excluded categories. Third, we present the information from the censuses as we found it, generally without corrections of misspelled names and other mistakes, even when information in other sources made the mistakes obvious. Illegible items or doubtful readings are indicated by question marks in the appendix. We consulted each census in two versions: first, the scanned images of the original documents available online at Ancestry.com (2010) and, second, the microfilm copies of the original documents available at the Arizona Historical Society library in Tucson. Both versions present different problems of legibility and accessibility; the appendix represents our best reading of each item using one or both versions. Tucson City Directories Tucson city directories are a fourth source of information about occupants of the project area following its initial development. The city directories, issued annually or biannually by a succession of publishers, also include the names and addresses of businesses, which are supplied only occasionally on the Sanborn maps and virtually never in the censuses. Extracting information from the directories is laborious, especially for multiple addresses over a span of many years, and especially for the years before 1918 or so, when the directories were strictly an alphabetical list of residents and businesses and lacked cross-listings by address. Appendix D is a compilation of the information about residents in the project area from the Tucson city directories for 1897–1898 through 1960. Appendix E is a compilation of information about the businesses in the project area and is drawn from the 1902–1991 Tucson City Directories. The city directories occasionally contradict the censuses in the identification of occupants at a particular address in a particular year; the appendixes contain all the contradictory data. It should be noted that information appearing in the directory for a particular year was most likely gathered late in the previous year, 6 Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information and this likely accounts for the discrepancies. In such cases, we relied on the census data, which represents a known date during that year. Property-Ownership Records Property-ownership records were another useful source on the history of the project area. Currently, the project area comprises 11 separate ownership parcels, but this is only the most-recent configuration in a fairly complicated history of lumping, splitting, and redefining parcels. A glance at the lot divisions shown in Figure 8, which represents a time shortly after the original subdivisions of Blocks 252–255, suggests the degree to which property ownership in the project area has changed since the late-nineteenth century: of 24 individual lots originally designated and sold within the project area, only 1—the single lot encompassed by small, triangular Block 253—survives today as an ownership parcel in its original size and shape. The early tract books of the O’Quinn Title and Abstract Company (n.d.) were consulted for information on property ownership in the project area before 1930. Our summary of this information, along with a brief discussion of how we extracted it from the O’Quinn tract books, is included in this report as Appendix F. The information from the O’Quinn tract books has several limitations: it indicates ownership only, not necessarily who lived on a property; it is only as accurate as the O’Quinn Title and Abstract Company was able to make it at the time; and it does not extend beyond 1930 or so. Nonetheless, the compiled lists do provide a sense of who owned (and sometimes lived in) the project area during the first 40 years after it was abandoned for use as a cemetery. After 1930, the configuration of lots in the project area changed quickly, as small lots were consolidated into larger parcels for use in commercial development. The specifics of ownership in the project area after 1930, as residents moved out and businesses moved in, are of less interest than the sequence of demolition and commercial construction reflected in the Sanborn maps and the city directories. Pima County Assessment Rolls The last major source of information on the owners and residents of the project area was the collection of Pima County property-tax assessment rolls that are housed at the Arizona State Archives in Phoenix. These records relate the valuations of real property within the county and the corresponding tax liability of the property owners. The individual assessments allowed the creation of an economic snapshot for a number of owners and residents associated with the project area throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s. The assessments as a whole provide the general economic background of Tucson within which to compare the individual snapshots. Many of the early assessment rolls are only loosely alphabetized, grouped by the first letter of the last name, complicating the search for a large list of individuals. A sampling strategy was implemented, with data drawn from a sample of 5 years: 1892, 1898, 1906, 1917, and 1925. These years were chosen based on a rough 10-year interval that was biased toward years with extant Tucson city directories. Two types of information were drawn from each of the assessment rolls. The first set of data collected included the assessments for individuals associated with the project area; these data can be found in Appendix G. The second was an approximately 20 percent sample of the Pima County taxpayers and their assessments. This sample was taken by collecting the assessments from every fifth page of the assessment rolls. Information from Historical Photographs The photographs of the project area presented in this volume represent just a few of those available. A number of aerial images proved extremely useful to the research. Prior to the 1920s, only oblique images were possible, some accomplished from the top of the Pima County Courthouse. After around 1920, true, or plan-view, aerial photography became available, but many of the best project area photographs from this period continued to be taken obliquely from nearby buildings, such as the Pioneer Hotel. These photographs are an invaluable resource for researching and documenting the changing nature of the project area and of Tucson, in general. 7 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 1887–1890 Figure 9 is the first known postcemetery photograph of the project area. The project area can be seen as a small bit of land with some low plants, on the left side of the photograph, between Alameda Street and the railroad. Stone Avenue runs at a diagonal across the middle of the photograph, and its intersection with Alameda Street is just outside the frame, along the left. Writing on the back of the photograph suggests it was taken in either 1885 or 1891. However, Old Main (the first building associated with the University of Arizona), which was started in 1887 and completed by 1891, is visible in the distance, revealing that the photo probably dates to its period of construction (Sanborn 1889). According to the Arizona Daily Citizen of February 1890, the “old cemetery” was being graded in preparation for construction of several residences (ADC, 6 February 1890:4). In the photograph, the ground surface of the project area appears to be undisturbed; therefore, it seems likely that the photograph predates this event. This photograph was taken approximately a decade after the railroad arrived in Tucson, when vernacular architecture still predominated; adobe buildings with flat roofs were common. Adobe bricks may be seen drying in the foreground, suggesting that they remained a local building material. The photograph is also noteworthy for its portrayal of the natural environment that disappeared as the area became urbanized. Later photographs depict not just the growing, built-environment infrastructure but an increase in introduced landscaping plants facilitated by the advent of residential water service. Local newspapers exhorted the community to make use of this new resource to “make home surroundings attractive and enjoyable” (ADS, 13 January 1884). 1890–1892 Figure 10 is the earliest known photograph from the residential period of the project area. The presence of houses on the project area places the date of the photograph after the grading work of 1890, and the L-shaped building at the very bottom center of the photograph (Sanborn 1889) was replaced around February 1892 (Finney 1962). So, the photograph dates between 1890 and 1892, only a year or two after Figure 9 (it was incorrectly assigned a date of 1899 in a previous archaeological investigation from the vicinity of the project area [Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997:68]). Figure 11 is a wire-frame representation of this photo; building numbers provided in the descriptions of the remaining photographs refer to this figure. This photograph provides an excellent representation of the project area during the early residential period. Houses are depicted along Stone Avenue, and one residence is shown on Alameda Street. A building at the corner of Miltenberg (East Council) Street and Grossetta Avenue was apparently replaced or remodeled by the time the 1901 Sanborn map was produced. One item of note is the presence of buildings that are probably related to the keeping of livestock, including Buildings 5 and 9 and the stable in the foreground that was noted in Figure 9 and was roofed in the time between the previous photograph and this one. It is likely that these buildings represent buggy houses and/or shelters for horses. Clearly, not every residence maintained such a building. Though the photograph was taken only a few years later than the previous image, it appears that flat roofs had become less prevalent across the portion of town depicted. However, of the five houses built within the project area at this time, only two have pitched roofs; three other new houses are similar to earlier constructions, built of adobe bricks and having flat roofs. 1896–1897 Figure 12 likely dates to late 1896 or early 1897. The presence of the building at 32 W. Alameda Street places the photograph after the production of the 1896 Sanborn map. The building at 208 N. Stone Avenue was occupied by at least 1897 (Tucson City Directory [TCD] 1897). (A previous investigation [Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997:69] incorrectly dated this photograph to ca. 1901.) This photograph shows an area somewhat to the left of that in Figure 10 yet is basically a similar orientation, with the diagonals of Stone Avenue and Alameda Street intersecting behind the large tree at the right. By this date, new houses were built on Stone Avenue, Alameda Street, and Grossetta Avenue. 8 Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information 1904–1908 Figure 13 represents two-thirds of a panorama dating to around 1904–1908 and is one of the best views of the early neighborhood. The presence of buildings at 46 and 48 Grossetta Avenue dates this photograph after the production of the 1904 Sanborn map, and the lack of a hardware warehouse south of Building C and east of Building E dates the photograph prior to 1908. This photograph provides a similar orientation to those of Figure 10 and Figure 12. This photograph depicts a number of new buildings and records the last major residential changes to the project area for the next 20 years. Besides the smaller dwellings constructed on Grossetta Avenue and the slightly larger dwelling on Miltenberg Street, this photograph includes the largest house that was to be built on the project area. The residence was first recorded on the 1901 Sanborn map. Two trends mentioned previously are particularly visible in this image. First, all residences in the project area have pitched roofs. Second, a great number of nonnative, deciduous shade trees can clearly be seen. These trees are especially prominent running along the sides of streets, although they are not confined to that context. A third trend—the abandonment of privies and cesspits after the advent of the city sewer—is suggested by the presence of fewer small outbuildings and a lack of escapement chimneys on the outbuildings that remained. May 10, 1924 Figure 14 is the first known aerial photograph of the project area. It is unlikely that aerial photographs were taken in the Tucson area until after the establishment of the Tucson Municipal Flying Field, in 1919 (The Historical Marker Database 2008; Schladweiler 2004). This figure is a detail of a photograph that was taken by the U.S. Army Signal Corps on May 10, 1924. Alameda Street runs along the bottom of the figure, and Stone Avenue runs along the left side. Toole Avenue runs along the diagonal, and Grossetta Avenue and Miltenberg Street meet in the center of the image. This photograph documents several significant changes to the project area, including the construction of multifamily dwellings in the form of apartments on Miltenberg Street and the commercial construction on Toole Avenue, both illustrating the beginnings of a shift in land-use patterns. 1937–1939 Based on comparison with archival data, the photograph in Figure 15 was apparently photographed between 1937 and 1939. Taken from the Pioneer Hotel, it illustrates a profound change within the project area. The corner of Miltenberg Street and Stone Avenue had by this time become devoted to commercial enterprise (TCD 1928, 1929, 1934, 1935). Another commercial building had been built along Toole Avenue. As can be seen in this figure, the southern portion of the project area still retained more of its residential character. However, the houses at 34 and 48 E. Alameda Street had been razed sometime around 1937, resulting in the empty lot visible on the north side of Alameda Street, on the left side of the photograph. Also notable is the disappearance of most of the landscaping that characterized the neighborhood in earlier photographs. 1947 Taken a decade after Figure 15, Figure 16 shows marked change in the project area. All previously owneroccupied houses had been removed, along with previous rental properties that were situated along the main streets. Only residences used as rental properties on small side streets remained. New construction included automobile sales, servicing, and repair facilities. 9 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 1953–1957 Comparison with archival sources indicates that Figure 17 was taken between 1953 and 1957. A notable trend toward larger business buildings is evident in the expansion of businesses on the far left and in the center of the image. Nevertheless, a few residences remained, in the form of apartment buildings and three houses along Grossetta Avenue. 1967–1971 Figure 18 depicts the project area at some point between 1967 and 1971, as revealed by comparison with historical maps and other data. The railroad runs along the bottom of the photograph and is paralleled by Toole Avenue. The project area is depicted in the foreground, in the triangle formed by Toole and Stone Avenues and Alameda Street. The project area had, by this time, become completely commercialized, covered by nonresidential buildings and parking lots. Impacts of the Tucson Urban Renewal Project, active at that time, can also be seen. The center of town is dotted with high-rise buildings, and residential presence is indicated in only isolated and fragmented downtown neighborhoods. The set of historical photographs used in this investigation provided a wealth of information regarding development of the built environment on the project area and the appearance of the neighborhood over time. In some cases, it was possible to assign dates to historical photographs and, armed with that information, to assign dates of construction/remodeling/demolition to various buildings. 10 Figure 1. Portion of the 1901 Sanborn map of Tucson (Sanborn Map Company 1901) with the project area overlaid (digital image courtesy of Environmental Resources Data, Inc., and ProQuest Information and Learning). Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information 11 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 2. The project area in 1904, based on the 1904 Sanborn map of Tucson (Sanborn Map Company 1904). 12 Figure 3. Portion of the 1909 Sanborn map of Tucson (Sanborn Map Company 1909) with the project area overlaid (digital image courtesy of Environmental Resources Data, Inc., and ProQuest Information and Learning). Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information 13 Figure 4. Portion of the 1919 Sanborn map of Tucson (Sanborn Map Company 1919) with the project area overlaid (digital image courtesy of Environmental Resources Data, Inc., and ProQuest Information and Learning). Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 14 Figure 5. The project area in 1930, based on the 1930 Sanborn Map of Tucson (Sanborn Map Company 1930). Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information 15 Figure 6. Portion of the 1947 Sanborn map of Tucson (Sanborn Map Company 1947) with the project area overlaid (digital image courtesy of Environmental Resources Data, Inc., and ProQuest Information and Learning). Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 16 Figure 7. The project area in 1960, based on the 1960 Sanborn Map of Tucson (Sanborn Map Company 1960). Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information 17 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 8. Project area showing original subdivisions of Blocks 252–255. 18 Figure 9. View of the southern project area from the County Courthouse, ca. 1887–1890. The project area is on the undeveloped land to the south of the railroad on the far left of the photograph (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 2924). Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information 19 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 10. Photograph of downtown Tucson, 1890–1892. The project area is located in the center of the photograph (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 12642). 20 Figure 11. A wireframe representation of Figure 10: (1) 270 N. Stone; (2) 250 N. Stone; (3) Privy 16500; (4) 223 N. Stone Avenue; (5) 270 N. Stone Avenue Barn; (6) 223 N. Stone Avenue Shed; (7) Barn ; (8) 45 Grossetta; (9) 48 E. Alameda Buggy house, Cess Pit 3040; (10) Privy 734; (11) 48 E. Alameda. Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information 21 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 12. Photograph of the project area, 1896–1897. The project area is located in the center right portion of the photograph (photograph courtesy of Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 61955). 22 Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information Figure 13. Portion of panorama showing project area c. 1904–1908. The project area is located in the center of the photograph (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, B89429). Figure 14. The first known aerial photograph of the residential period of the project area, 1924 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, PC136_B1_A7 ). 23 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 15. Project area between 1937 and 1939 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 51954). 24 Figure 16. Project area in 1947 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 51960). The photograph shows marked change in the project area. Chapter 2 • Historical Data Sources and Photographic Information Figure 17. Project area between 1953 and 1957 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, PC177_F23_1202). On the far left and center of the image, taken between 1953 and 1957, a notable trend toward larger business buildings is evident in the expansion of businesses. Nevertheless, a few residences remained in the form of apartment buildings and three houses along Grossetta Avenue. 25 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 18. Project area between 1967 and 1971. Project is in the lower right quadrant of the photograph (courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, PC177_F24_1134). 26 C hapter  3 Postcemetery Archaeological Feature Types and Architectural Types in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area R. Scott Plumlee and Carrie J. Gregory Archaeological Feature Types A total of 736 postcemetery archaeological features were identified from the Joint Courts Complex postcemetery component. When the end-of-fieldwork report (Hall et al. 2008) was submitted to the county, the table included 752 postcemetery features. However, further analysis resulted in a change in the definitions of some features, from cultural to natural. Of the cultural features, some, such as building foundations and slabs, were recorded then removed. Others, such as refuse deposits and privies, were excavated according to the demands of the research design and the methods outlined in Volume 2, Chapter 2 of this series. Table 1 provides a summary listing of the various feature types found during this project, and a detailed description of feature attributes can be found in Appendix H. A description of the major feature types is provided below. Animal Burials Five animal burials were found in postcemetery contexts in the project area. Each feature was identified by a discrete stain and articulated canine or feline remains. These features stood in contrast to unarticulated faunal material (largely food bone) that was found dispersed in other features. The animal burials represented a purposeful activity in regard to a pet or other animal that was disposed of according to specific treatment. In at least one case, an animal burial was found to contain grommets from a fabric sack or tarp in which the animal had been buried. Only a few other artifacts were found in the animal burials; these likely were not intentionally placed with the burials. Buildings Buildings were defined on the basis of extant, built-environment features. Architectural discussions in this report include both buildings that remained standing at the outset of this investigation and those represented only by remnant archaeological features. A more thorough discussion of architectural types in the project area appears below. Archaeological features representing buildings included filled basements and stairwells, foundations, builders’ trenches, and concrete pads. Outbuildings, such as privies and sheds, were represented by privy pits (see detailed discussion below), postholes, and other less-substantial features. Basements were found to have been filled, either at the time the superstructure was demolished or at a later date; details drawn from artifact analysis are provided in the discussion of each feature. Some building features were found to have been merely abandoned, and others (such as concrete pads) had been built over or incorporated into later constructions. It was possible in many cases, particularly with commercial buildings, to determine the sequence of remodeling events; descriptions of these events appear in the feature discussions. Landscaping Features Landscaping features (pits where plants or trees were planted) were identified by the presence and extent of organic soil. Landscaping features in the project area were found to be characterized by a base layer of clean fill. The next-higher level tended to have a grayish cast and often contained a low density of historical 27 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest artifacts. The grayish fill was likely introduced at the time vegetation was removed from the pit. This interpretation is supported by the fact that planting activities would have resulted in an excess of fill, whereas vegetation removal would have resulted in a deficit. The resulting depression would likely have been leveled with soil from the surrounding area, increasing the possibility of introducing small historical artifacts into the feature. Landscaping features were also identified based on their placement within yards and along streets and property boundaries. In many cases, it was possible to correlate specific archaeological features with trees observed in historical photographs of the project area. Historical photographs proved useful, as well, in distinguishing between landscaping pits and similar features, such as fence posts and utility-pole locations. Postholes Postholes were defined by (1) the presence of physical evidence, such as a wooden post or post remnant; (2) the correspondence to archival evidence shown on Sanborn maps or historical photographs; or (3) postfield analysis, based on the feature shapes, dimensions, and alignments with related features. Postholes varied in diameter and depth, ranging from fairly ephemeral fence anchors to large signposts and utility poles. Refuse Pits and Refuse Deposits Refuse pits and refuse deposits were defined based on the presence and amount of trash within the fill of a feature. Refuse deposits tended to be shallow and were composed of a single stratum or a few strata, suggesting a single episode of deposition or a continual deposition activity over a brief period of time. Refuse pits in the project area were typically deeper and composed of multiple strata representing a complex disposal history. Both types of refuse features were characterized by intentional filling and leveling at the ends of their use-lives. As defined herein, the category of refuse features excludes hollow-filled features that served a purpose other than refuse disposal, such as privies and basements, regardless of whether the features’ final use was the disposal of refuse. Privy Pits and Cesspits The interpretation of privies and other subsurface sewage-treatment structures is central to the understanding of lifeways in the postcemetery component of the Joint Courts Complex project area. Behaviors associated with the construction, use, and termination of subsurface sewage-treatment structures can provide insight into the earliest and longest-lived methods of human-waste treatment in Tucson. Because these archaeological features were often excavated deeply and designed not to be disturbed, the subsurface component of privies is often preserved when other features have been destroyed. Additionally, the use of these rudimentary systems is fixed in time. Although outhouses remain in use in some rural areas of the United States, modern sewer systems and septic tanks have replaced widespread use of outhouses in most urban areas. This creates a time capsule representing a finite period of time at a given location: the period prior to the introduction and use of public sewer systems. Because these structures are no longer used in the project area, they will be referred to in this section in the past tense. Though privy pits were designed for the deposition and containment of human waste, they often served as receptacles for other discarded material culture. Random items may have been deposited individually, whereas occasional bulk deposits of ash, trash, quicklime, or soil were used to absorb liquid, deodorize, and even disinfect the contents (Barlow 1992:15, 100–101, 123; Geismar 1993:65) or to cap the pits upon abandonment (Hackbarth 1995:120). Sanitation aspects of subsurface sewage-treatment structures are discussed elsewhere in this document. Other objects found in privy pits, such as pocket watches, dentures, and toys, were probably lost accidentally. The possibility of deliberate deposition of other artifacts is also recognized and may have been an attempt to conceal information. Items that fell into privy pits were usually never recovered because they were quickly covered with human waste. Understanding the material culture and human behaviors of the historical period is frequently reliant upon the archaeology of subsurface sewage-treatment structures, because they contain intact information about the past. 28 Chapter 3 • Postcemetery Archaeological Feature Types and Architectural Types Characteristics of Privies and Other Subsurface Sewage-Treatment Structures Although cesspits, septic tanks, and sewers were used across the country, privies were the most prevalent of the four major sewage-disposal strategies used in the United States during the historical period. Privy pits were an early and simple solution to the disposal of human waste. In its most basic definition, a privy was a small outbuilding that contained a toilet used for human excrement. Privies were typically constructed over a pit excavated into the ground that was intended to stockpile the waste until it dissipated. Privies were used throughout the United States until running water was introduced to an area, which quickly led to the transition to indoor water closets. Effluent from water closets could be plumbed to the household privy pit, essentially creating a cesspit. However, the use of water to transport the waste (Tarr et al. 1984) greatly increased the amount of effluent, and cesspits generally had to be much deeper than privy pits. The construction of privies and their pits varied widely across the country, from simple pits in rural areas to complex, sealed vaults in more-urban contexts (Barlow 1992:21–32; Noël Hume 1968:139; Stottman 2000:39–61). These pits were generally regular in shape, but the shape could vary from circular to ovular and from square to rectangular (Diehl et al. 2003:23; Stottman 2000:47). The pits were usually straight-walled, or nearly so, although usage and the introduction of liquids could cause them to slope or bell at the bottom. The depth of privy pits also varied widely, though depth specifications were regulated by law in some areas (Stottman 2000:54). Privy pits excavated in Tucson were generally quite shallow (see Thiel 2003:26–28, 50); it is likely that pits exceeding 20 or even 30 feet in depth were used as cesspits (see Chapter 16, Feature 3042 on Block 254, Lot 6) rather than privy pits. In some areas of the country, privy pits were lined with wood or brick (Stottman 2000:47) and, depending on the time period, sealed, so that the waste within could not leach out and contaminate soil or groundwater. In other cases, the linings may have served as structural support, so that sloughing and collapsing of surrounding soil would not undermine the pit (see Chapter 10, Feature 16500 on Block 252, Lot 6). Both cesspits and septic tanks have features similar to those of the privy pit and can be seen in a direct line of technological improvement. With the advent of the twentieth century came increasing awareness of sanitation and the transmission of disease; open cesspits were recognized as a health hazard, and covered pits became more common. When combined with a leach line, a crude septic tank was the result. The formal septic tank was patented in France in 1881 (Metcalf and Eddy1914–1915:12). Within just a few years, septic tanks were being built in the United States (Metcalf and Eddy1914–1915:15–16). However, litigation surrounding the U.S. patent for the septic-tank process delayed acceptance of the septic tank for municipal systems until around 1913 (Metcalf and Eddy1914–1915:17). Sewers were introduced to the project area in the early-twentieth century and are discussed elsewhere in this report. Changes in the form of sewage disposal also changed the ancillary disposal practices that had once been associated with the privy pit. Privies, by necessity, included an open hole through which trash could be introduced into the pit. The deposition of material culture in privy pits was a common occurrence. When a privy pit was full, the owner could either clean it out or dig another pit, which means that the filling of a privy pit frequently resulted in the end of the use-life for that pit. In rural settings, where land was abundant, it was often easier to dig a relatively small privy pit and create a new one when the old one became exhausted (Noël Hume 1968:139). In urban settings, the limited availability of land and the availability of workers made it more likely that pits were cleaned and reused. Cesspits featured reduced access for disposal because they were sealed (as outlined in Tucson City Ordinances, see below). As a result, cesspits were maintained to prevent overflow and were rarely relocated. The septic system was the most inaccessible, with a buried, sealed container that remained in the same location for decades. Septic systems also required maintenance when they became full, because of their permanence. This differential access changed the ways in which people used these features to dispose of refuse. Privies gave easy access for daily, discretionary disposal of refuse and ideally involved periodic layering of ash, dirt, or lime for odor control and absorption. Cesspits, if used for refuse disposal and depending on the point of access, were probably only used for larger, periodic dumping. The septic tank would have received only those artifacts which could (accidentally or intentionally) be flushed down a toilet or washed down a drain. The History of Tucson’s Privies Locally, privies became regulated in 1877, when the newly incorporated City of Tucson passed Ordinance No. 6, stipulating that a privy was required at all residences and that each privy required a door, proper 29 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest ventilation, and a vault with an escapement chimney. Tucson privies were subject to the approval of the Board of Health, and lack of a privy was cause for a fine amounting to not more than $100 (City of Tucson 1900: Ordinance No. 6). This regulation was followed in 1879 by Ordinance No. 16, which forbade the venting of sewers, ditches, or mains onto city streets. Diehl et al. (2003:24) noted that an almost identical ordinance had been passed in 1871 by the Village of Tucson. Most of the privies thus far identified archaeologically in Tucson dated to the period following enactment of these ordinances, although privies were almost certainly used locally, in an unregulated manner, before 1877. Interestingly, the Arizona Weekly Star reported in 1878 that “[a] great majority of the people of the city are without [vaults or earthen closets] upon their premises” (AWS, 3 October 1878:3). Thiel (2005:79) noted that no privies have been found in Tucson predating the 1870s, and although our survey of the available archaeological literature does reveal a paucity of privies identified from that time period, there may be one exception dating from the Mexican Period (AZ BB:13:6 [ASM]; Thiel 1997) (Table 2). Two cautionary factors should be noted, however. First, few archaeological studies have focused on sites in the oldest occupied sections of Tucson. Second, standard archaeological methods for the investigation and dating of historical urban sites are typically heavily reliant on Sanborn fire insurance maps. The first Sanborn map of Tucson was produced in 1883 (Sanborn Map Company 1883), 6 years after the regulation of privies in the city. By the 1880s, privies in downtown Tucson were common and can be seen in many of the historical photographs from the Bird’s Eye View collection housed at the Arizona Historical Society (see Figure 10). We can say with certainty that the number of privies increased between the years 1880 and 1895. Running water was first introduced to Tucson in 1882, allowing the adoption of indoor water closets and plumbing. However, it was almost 20 years later that the first municipal sewer system was installed. This necessitated the interim adoption of the use of cesspits. Although cesspits may have been introduced as early as 1882, they were not regulated until 1898 and the passage of Ordinance No. 119. This ordinance made it illegal to dig or maintain a cesspool, or any cistern used for the reception of unclean wastewater, without a permit from the City Health Officer (City of Tucson 1900), who was responsible for the technical specifications for any new cesspools or cisterns. With the introduction of the sanitary sewer to parts of Tucson in 1900, privies and cesspits were gradually replaced. Three years after the passage of Ordinance No. 119, the city decreed, in Ordinance No. 154, that any property abutting the newly installed city sewer was required to connect to it. However, they did allow that, in the event that no sewer abutted the property, a cesspool could be used: however, that said cesspool shall not be less than eight feet in depth and five feet in diameter, each way: said cesspool shall be located at a distance of not less than six feet from any property line and not less than ten feet from any dwelling and shall have a strong and safe cover of wood or brick or stone arch not less than eighteen inches below the surrounding surface of the ground or be safely inclosed [sic] and covered by a suitable outhouse and all such cesspools shall have a proper vent-pipe projecting therefrom [sic] of a height of not less than twelve feet above the surface [City of Tucson 1926]. Or, as was stipulated by Ordinance No. 211 in 1906, a cesspool could be used, as long as “such water-closet, privy or cesspool [was] not unhealthful or offensive to the public, or to any person” (City of Tucson 1926). However, by 1906, the city was clearly encouraging use of the city sewer, and it passed Ordinance No. 210, which basically stated that, if it was at all possible for a dwelling to connect with the city sewer system, it was required to do so, whether or not the property directly abutted a sewer line (City of Tucson 1926). By the 1920s, there was a growing movement across the country to eliminate cesspools. Governmental opinion was stated in a 1922 U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin: “Except under the most favorable conditions the construction and use of a cesspool can not be condemned too strongly . . . . Leaching cesspools especially are open to . . . serious objections” (Barlow 1992:125). It is interesting to note, however, that privies were in use in Tucson until at least the 1970s, when the Tucson Daily Citizen ran an article on the Model Cities Program, which had “launched a campaign to put people in bona fide Bathrooms” (Tucson Daily Citizen [TDC], 3 November 1972). The program included a survey of the Pascua Village and Kroeger Lane areas, southwest of the project area, in the vicinity of Sentinel Peak (“A” Mountain), in which 800 privylike structures were identified, with some 300 still in use. Despite the desire of the Model Cities Program to replace all of these with a premanufactured “Bathroom Module,” it was decided that rental properties were exempt from the program (Negri 1972). Therefore, it may be that even today, over 100 years after the introduction of the sewer system to Tucson, privies remain in use in specific areas. 30 Chapter 3 • Postcemetery Archaeological Feature Types and Architectural Types The Archaeology of Privies in Tucson The formation processes of privy deposits usually occurred in two distinct phases (cf. Hackbarth 1995:120). The first phase included episodic behavior related to the use and maintenance of the privy pit, such as the intentional introduction of human waste, garbage, quicklime, dirt, ash, or trash. In the second phase, at the end of a privy pit’s use-life, the pit was commonly filled with primary or secondary rubbish deposits or clean fills. After abandonment, privy-pit fill continued to compact, resulting in a surface depression that may also have been filled. One important goal of archaeological excavation and interpretation is to distinguish between these two phases. The average length of privy-pit use-life has been debated (cf. Noël Hume 1968:140) and may differ on the basis of soil type, method of construction, the size of the pit, and particulars of site history, such as the number of users or the introduction of sewer lines. Most of the privy pits and cesspits in the Joint Courts Complex project area were probably in use for between 5 and 10 years. However, two cesspits were in continuous use for between 30 and 40 years (see Chapter 16, Feature 3040 on Block 254, Lot 7, and Feature 3042 on Block 254, Lot 6). The identification and dating of stratigraphic deposits are important components of excavation and analysis, in part because of this variability in use-life. The initial field identification of privy pits and cesspits in the project area was made based on their shapes and sizes in plan view and their correspondence to features recorded on Sanborn maps. In the case of cesspits, the primary characteristic distinguishing them from privy pits was the presence of sewer pipe used to discharge effluent into the pit. This pipe was necessary to carry the waste from the house, or the location of the water closet, to the cesspit. Besides the incoming sewer pipe, septic tanks also had discharge pipes leading away from the features to leach fields. Only four septic-tank pits have been identified archaeologically in the Tucson Basin, all in Block 180, in close proximity to the project area (Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997:213–224). Before the current project, only two cesspits had been identified during archaeological work in the Tucson Basin, and they were both found at the Lewis-Weber site, approximately 1 mile north of the project area (Curriden 1981). The limited identification of these feature types may indicate that they have not been routinely identified correctly when encountered as archaeological features, or that traditional archaeological sampling methods (such as subsurface testing along lot boundaries [e.g., Mabry et al. 1994]) have not been adequate to reveal the presence of this feature type. As will be discussed later, the correspondence between lot boundaries and cesspits is not as strong as the correspondence between lot boundaries and privy pits. Additionally, identification criteria applied to the various feature types have not been standardized among projects. For example, according to criteria applied in this investigation, the presence of incoming sewer pipes and the lack of output pipes and a leaching field suggested that the features in Block 180 were, in fact, cesspits rather than septic tanks (Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997:212–230). The report, Archaeological Investigations at Blocks 139 and 159 in Barrio Libre, Tucson, Arizona (Diehl et al. 2003:23–28), contains the only in-depth discussion of privy excavation specific to the Tucson Basin prior to this report. Unfortunately, a similar survey of available local reports, undertaken for this project, revealed that many privy-pit, cesspit, and septic-tank features have not been excavated or reported in ways that would allow for easy comparison. This survey identified 82 archaeologically investigated privies, cesspits, or septic pits within the Tucson Basin (see Table 2). Commonly missing information includes pit shape, which was unreported for 28 features, and stratigraphic profiles. Privies in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area The earliest archival evidence for privies on the project area can be seen in Figure 10. This photo probably dates between 1890 and 1892 (see previous discussion of photos) and shows a number of outbuildings that likely represent privies, including buildings that correspond to Features 734 and 16500 (see Figure 11, Buildings 10 and 3, respectively). The next reliable source for information on privies in the project area is the 1901 Sanborn map (see Figure 1), which was the first Sanborn map of Tucson to include the project area. Shown are a number of small outbuildings, typically situated along the back property line of a lot and often clustered in proximity to those of adjoining lots. Many of these were probably privies, although archaeological evidence of that function was not encountered at each location. On subsequent Sanborn maps, most of these outbuildings remain consistent in size and footprint until between 1914 and 1919. The 1919 Sanborn map shows that, 31 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest although most of these buildings remained extant, they had been enlarged, probably indicating remodeling into garages or sheds with the advent of sewer connections and increased automobile ownership within the project area. However, Sanborn maps from throughout the residential period in the project area depict outbuildings for which function remains unknown. Architectural Types during the Postcemetery Period Included in our investigation was a thorough review of the architecture of the project area. Forty-nine unique, addressed buildings were constructed within the project area between 1889 and 2007 (this number does not include unaddressed outbuildings). Architectural descriptions of these buildings were compiled using two basic documentary resources, Sanborn fire insurance maps and historical plan-view and oblique aerial photographs, in conjunction with archaeological evidence. These resources each had the potential to provide unique information, confirm other sources, and supply different levels of detail. Sanborn fire insurance maps provided information on building shape, function, and address; number of stories; structural and roofing materials; quantity and type of chimneys; and parapet height. At a minimum, aerial photographs provided confirmation of existence and a building’s plan view, or footprint. Oblique aerial photographs often provided information about roof shapes and styles, as well as architectural details, such as door and window placement. Ground-level photographs generally provided details related to architectural features, permitting discussion of feature quantity, styles, and locations. This was especially true for doors, windows, dormers, eaves, chimneys, cupolas, porch posts, and attic vents. Additional data came from on-site visits of existing buildings in 2005 by former Statistical Research architectural historian Simon Herbert. Most of the construction and alteration dates are best approximations of the earliest and latest dates of possible existence. Two architectural styles and their influences predominated in the project area: Spanish Colonial and Folk Victorian. Other noted architectural styles and influences were Egyptian Revival, Craftsman, Spanish Eclectic, and Art Deco. Spanish Colonial (ca. 1600–1900) The Spanish Colonial architectural style is represented by solid masonry construction (adobe brick or rubble) in simple forms that are usually single story. This style of architecture came with the Spanish settlers and missionaries of the Southwest (and Florida). Large Spanish Colonial domestic buildings often grew out of a series of independent rooms and additions. Austere facades were typical, and many had interior courtyards and long, narrow porches. Character-defining features include low-pitched and flat roofs, few small window openings, and stucco-clad walls (Harris 1998:308; McAlester and McAlester 2000:128–137). Folk Victorian (ca. 1870–1910) The Folk Victorian architectural style, also called Gingerbread Folk, is best described as a simple house form with Victorian decorative detailing. The railroad provided access to woodworking machinery and precut detailing from distant mills. Often, older folk houses were updated with Victorian porches and trim. Characterdefining features of Folk Victorian–style houses include porches with spindlework detailing or jigsaw-cut trim, cornice-line brackets, and symmetrical facades (except on the gabled front and wing form). The mostcommon forms of Folk Victorian houses are one- and two-story front-gabled, gabled front and wing, pyramidal, and side-gabled. Victorian details are inspired by Italianate, Queen Anne, and Gothic Revival styles (Harris 1998:153; McAlester and McAlester 2000:308–317). Egyptian Revival (ca. 1830–1930) The Egyptian Revival architectural style is a variant of Exotic Revival architecture. Character-defining features include ashlar-finished exterior walls (squared building stone made to resemble roughly hacked stone), 32 Chapter 3 • Postcemetery Archaeological Feature Types and Architectural Types cavetto cornices (concave, containing at least the quadrant of a circle), lotus capitals, sun disks, and monumental portals. Often, the style is exhibited only through the superimposition of Egyptian columns on otherwise Greek Revival–style or Italianate-style forms (Harris 1998:113; McAlester and McAlester 2000:230–233). Only one house in the project area was influenced by this architectural style. Craftsman (ca. 1900–1930) The Craftsman architectural style was greatly influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement. The style originated in southern California and became one of the most common styles of the nation’s small dwellings. Character-defining features include pitched roofs, unenclosed eave overhangs, exposed rafters, and porches supported by square columns. Most-common forms of Craftsman houses are front-gabled roof, cross-gabled roof, side-gabled roof, and hipped roof (Harris 1998:81; McAlester and McAlester 2000:452–463). Spanish Eclectic (ca. 1915–1940) The Spanish Eclectic architectural style, also called Spanish Colonial Revival, is loosely based on Spanish Colonial architecture with “details borrowed from the entire history of Spanish architecture . . . Moorish, Byzantine, Gothic, or Renaissance inspiration” (McAlester and McAlester 2000:417). Character-defining features include low-pitched or flat roofs, red-tile roof coverings, arches, stuccoed wall surfaces, and asymmetrical facades. This style is most common in the southwestern states and Florida, regions where Spanish Colonial architecture originated (Harris 1998:309; McAlester and McAlester 2000:416–429). Art Deco (ca. 1920–1940) The Art Deco architectural style was stimulated by the international exposition in Paris in 1925. Popular in U.S. architecture of the 1930s, character-defining features include smooth walls, low-relief stylized and geometric motifs as decorative elements, and vertical projections above the roof line (Harris 1998:14; McAlester and McAlester 2000:464–467). 33 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 1. Feature Types Identified in Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Contexts Feature Type Animal burial 5 Bank vault 1 Basement 10 Benchmark 1 Building 2 Cesspit 7 Concrete pier 15 Concrete slab 27 Drain 4 Fireplace 2 Foundation: adobe 19 Foundation : concrete poured 38 Foundation : concrete block 1 Foundation : stone and mortar Freestanding wall 23 1 Landscaping pit 73 Machinery 10 Manhole 3 Pipeline segment 4 Pit 107 Posthole 236 Privy pit 6 Refuse deposit 4 Refuse pit 23 Stairwell 4 Trench 102 Underground tank 2 Utility vault 4 Well 1 Wooden curb 1 Total 34 No. of Features 736 18 24 16 4 21 14 9 6 1 44 59 60 13 4 28 41 21 28 6 36 31 19 5 2 083 083 083 083 083 083 094 094 136 136 136 136 138 138 138 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 139 Feature 083 Blocks Site privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit Feature Type rectangular square rectangular circular circular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular Shape 4.40 4.00 5.50 5.60 >6.00 4.70 4.28 8.00 11.00 3.33 4.42 7.17 6.42 4.17 6.00 6.50 4.00 5.00 7.50 4.00 25.00 5.50 Length (feet) 3.90 4.30 5.60 >2.10 4.20 >2.00 6.50 5.66 3.60 2.25 2.42 7.00 5.17 2.50 6.00 3.50 3.00 3.00 2.50 6.00 5.50 Width (feet) >0.20 3.50 14.60 23.00 >2.00 >20.00 >1.00 >5.00 >4.00 1.92 4.50 11.08 2.17 5.00 6.00 6.00 2.50 6.50 4.00 8.00 15.00 Depth (feet) 1890–1895 1905–1929 1905–1929 1935–1940 1890–1930 1890–1930 1890–1930 1905–1929 1898–1911 1890–1910 1910–1920 1890–1901 1883–1907 1890–1900 1880–1896 1889–1904 1893–1930 Date Range Table 2. Summary of Archaeologically Investigated Privies in Tucson no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no Sewer Pipe? Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Thiel and Desruisseaux 1993 Thiel and Desruisseaux 1993 Thiel and Desruisseaux 1993 Thiel and Dutt 1999 Thiel and Dutt 1999 Thiel and Dutt 1999 Thiel and Dutt 1999 Thiel 1993 Thiel 1993 Mabry et al. 1994 Mabry et al. 1994 Mabry et al. 1994 Mabry et al. 1994 Mabry et al. 1994 Mabry et al. 1994 Mabry et al. 1994 Reference Chapter 3 • Postcemetery Archaeological Feature Types and Architectural Types 35 36 6 10 9 12 3 8 2 5 38 39 11 54 8 7 108 70 7 11 17 22 69 71 108 113 59 159 159 159 159 159 159 159 172 172 172 172 172 172 172 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 Feature 159 Site septic pit privy pit privy pit privy pit septic pit septic pit privy pit septic pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit Feature Type circular rectangular rectangular circular circular rectangular oval circular circular rectangular oval oval square rectangular rectangular rectangular square rectangular Shape 3.28 4.90 3.40 4.60 5.60 5.00 4.30 9.51 3.60 6.10 3.12 2.62 3.28 6.56 3.94 3.94 2.98 3.50 5.50 5.10 5.50 >3.40 4.50 3.50 5.25 Length (feet) 3.28 4.90 2.67 3.40 5.60 5.00 2.69 2.62 3.02 5.47 2.95 2.69 2.10 3.50 5.00 3.30 >2.60 2.50 3.00 1.79 Width (feet) >3.94 8.60 6.20 5.90 >5.25 8.20 >12.00 6.90 0.33 0.66 0.53 2.49 0.66 1.15 4.80 4.70 3.90 4.50 5.50 >1.90 2.40 Depth (feet) post-1910– questionable 1886–1896 1870–1888 post-1890 post-1909 1889–1904 1896–1909 1900–1905 1900–1910 1900–1910 1900–1910 1890–1900 1897 1903–1910 1910–1920 Date Range yes no no no yes yes no yes no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no Sewer Pipe? continued on next page Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Ciolek-Torrello and Swanson 1997 Thiel 2002 Thiel 2002 Thiel 2002 Thiel 2002 Thiel 2002 Thiel 2002 Thiel 2002 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Diehl et al. 2003 Reference Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 5 2 13 22 236 7 10 191 191 192 192 192 228 228 Joint Courts Complex project area E. K. Ranch Chinese gardener’s house Brickyard locus privy pit 2012 privy pit privy pit cesspit cesspit cesspit cesspit cesspit privy pit 22355 734 3040 3042 7893 7897 7858 10095 privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit privy pit Feature Type 2002 3259 6 191 406 and 451 7 Feature 191 Site rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular circular rectangular square rectangular rectangular rectangular circular Shape 7.18 4.85 5.08 9.51 9.18 6.89 >5.50 4.76 6.75 3.33 1.92 4.33 6.75 7.00 7.25 5.60 7.50 3.60 5.50 9.70 5.80 Length (feet) >3.71 4.85 5.05 7.94 6.56 5.58 5.54 4.30 5.50 2.29 1.25 4.26 6.75 4.00 4.00 2.00 7.50 2.60 5.00 >2.25 Width (feet) 9.84 10.50 30.83 17.38 4.53 8.23 2.75 2.00 2.00 2.33 12.00 6.75 3.17 >2.00 >8.00 Depth (feet) 1900 1890 1890 1950–1960 1890–1907 1920–1940 1894–1900 1883–1890 1890–1919 1900–1929 Date Range no yes yes no yes yes no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no Sewer Pipe? continued on next page this volume this volume this volume this volume this volume this volume this volume this volume Gregory et al. 2004 Thiel 1997 Thiel 1997 Klimas et al. 2006 Sterner 1997 Ayres 1990 Ayres 1990 Thiel et al. 1995 Thiel et al. 1995 Thiel et al. 1995 Thiel 1996 Thiel 1996 Thiel 1996 Thiel 1996 Reference Chapter 3 • Postcemetery Archaeological Feature Types and Architectural Types 37 38 Tucson Presidio San Agustin Mission locus Lewis-Weber site Leon family farmstead Site privy pit cesspit 650 10099 cesspit privy pit 13 16 privy pit privy pit 360 408 privy pit cesspit 22 52 privy pit 20 privy pit privy pit 16500 48 Feature Type Feature rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular circular unknown rectangular rectangular rectangular rectangular Shape 4.53 5.12 4.43 4.26 4.59 4.75 5.05 9.41 5.74 Length (feet) >3.08 >2.82 3.12 3.77 4.59 4.79 8.43 5.22 Width (feet) >9.15 >9.15 1.64 4.92 4.10 9.02 7.22 4.83 18.93 7.38 12.53 Depth (feet) 1910s 1900–1910 late 1800s pre-1900 1900–1916 1940–1960 pre-1900 1910–1920 1890–1923 Date Range no no no no yes yes no no yes no no Sewer Pipe? Klimas et al. 2006 Klimas et al. 2006 Klimas et al. 2006 Curriden 1981 Curriden 1981 Curriden 1981 Curriden 1981 Thiel 2005 this volume this volume this volume Reference Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest C hapter  4 Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, and Kerry L. Sagebiel Later chapters of this volume will include descriptions of specific artifacts found from the various postcemetery contexts investigated as part of the Joint Courts Complex project. In this section, we will discuss the general artifact types that were found in the project area, focusing on their use for dating archaeological deposits and providing insights into the socioeconomic status, occupations, daily activities, and, at times, cultural identities of the persons who used and discarded them. Ceramic Tablewares One of the primary and best-known artifact categories useful for the archaeological interpretation of historicalperiod sites is the category of ceramics. Data contained in historical-period ceramics provide an opportunity to investigate hypotheses regarding trade networks, socioeconomic trends, and consumer preferences. Site chronology and the function of site features can also be inferred from ceramic fragments. Ceramic-vessel attributes, such as body or paste, glaze, and decoration, are the source of key artifact categories that can be used to glean meaningful data about the past. Ceramics data from postcemetery contexts in the project area were used in conjunction with documentary information and other artifact categories to provide a robust database for use in developing ideas about the lifestyles of historical-period residents. The vessels from which these artifacts derived would have been available in Tucson from local merchants or through mailorder catalogs. Ceramics from the project area were classified by body, vessel form, and decoration. The body, or paste, of a ceramic artifact refers to the clay structure of the vessel. Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, ceramic vessels were made from a variety of bodies. Ceramic-body categories are based on the firing temperature of the vessel, which affects the porosity of the resulting product (Majewski and O’Brien 1987:112). Ceramic-body types have also been covered in depth by a number of archaeologists. The study by Majewski and O’Brien (1987) was used as the primary basis for classification of white-bodied earthenwares in this collection and was supplemented by other references (Majewski 2006; Miller et al. 2000; Thiel, personal communication 2009). Ceramic-body types are summarized in Table 3. White-bodied earthenwares were, most frequently, tableware items, like plates, bowls, and cups. Some of these were labeled by proprietary names. For example, hotelware is a simple, undecorated type of vitreous earthenware introduced by the Homer Laughlin China Company; it was commonly used in homes and businesses (hotels, restaurants, or railroad service) during the late-nineteenth century (Wegars 1982) and was identified in a number of features in the project area. Stoneware jars, an artifact type that was commonly used for food storage until the twentieth century, were the most common unrefined, vitreous vessel forms analyzed during this project. Decorative vessels were mostly hand-painted porcelain plates and tea sets. A small number of Mexican coarse-earthenware sherds, some of which may have been from cooking vessels, were also identified. A total of 2,915 sherds representing a minimum of 1,205 tableware vessels were analyzed from the Joint Courts Complex project area. The majority were semivitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 1,235; MVC = 483), followed by hard-paste porcelain (n = 871; MVC = 330) and non-vitreous whitebodied earthenware (n = 353; MVC = 208). Other body types were represented by smaller numbers. Many different decorative techniques were available to ceramics manufacturers and consumers during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. These techniques ranged in complexity and were often used for particular types of ceramic bodies. Because of the intensity of international competition in the ceramic39 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest tablewares market, the decorative techniques were frequently means of distinction among different potteries. These techniques were often used to create named decorative patterns. Popular techniques and patterns were copied by numerous potteries, creating a diversity of similar wares that may appear in archaeological collections. Frequently, vessels contained more than one decorative technique and were decorated on both the interiors and exteriors. Most tableware sherds from the project area included at least one decorative technique. Although a large number of decorative techniques have been used throughout history, the nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century decorative techniques most commonly found in this collection are summarized in Table 4. Because changes in decorative styles and techniques are time sensitive, advancing and receding in popularity throughout time, they can provide information on chronology, technological developments, and consumer tastes. Although press molding, an ancient decoration technique, was the most prevalent decoration on tablewares from the Joint Courts Complex project area, certain other decoration styles were popularly used on refined white-bodied earthenware vessels for relatively short periods of time. Different transferprinted motifs and designs have been branded by tableware manufacturers to spur sales of new vessels. For instance, the pseudo-Chinese “willow” pattern was developed by the British manufacturer Spode in the 1790s and was heavily influenced by Chinese designs. Variations of the willow pattern were replicated by other European tableware manufacturers, and even by Chinese manufacturers. Willow-patterned wares are ubiquitous in nineteenth-century historical-period archaeological sites, and throughout the century, willowpatterned wares became a cheap, stylish tableware decoration (Mullins 1988:30). Another characteristic of transfer-printed decoration was “flow blue” (ca. 1844–ca. 1880s). This ceramic decorative style is composed of a number of designs and was at is peak in prestige around 1860 (Mullins 1988:32). As a decorative technique, decalcomania (1892–present) has been one of the most persistent and popular decorative techniques for white-bodied earthenware vessels. Decalcomania allows for the application of intricate, polychrome decorations, which is perhaps the principal benefit of this decorative technique and one of the main reasons it remains popular today (Mullins 1988:34). Vessel form was primarily inferred from the dimensions of the collected sherds, specifically sherds with measurable curved edges. For rim sherds, diameter was an important measurement for determinations of vessel forms. The primary vessel forms from the project area were associated with foodways and included bowls, crocks, cups, jars and jar lids, plates, platters, saucers, and teapots; a number of other vessel forms were identified in smaller quantities. Ceramic objects not associated with foodways are discussed in the household (vases and figurines), construction-materials/hardware (doorknobs), and recreation (doll parts) sections. The presence of artifacts, such as ceramics, in archaeological features is directly related to availability and real or perceived functional need, in conjunction with a host of social, economic, and ethnic variables. Ceramic sherds play an integral role in the archaeological interpretation of these aspects of the lives of historical-period residents in the project area. Fortunately, ceramics were recovered from most postcemetery period features across the project area and can often be associated with specific historical occupants. Inferences about the social and economic status of each of these households were partially based on the body, vessel form, and decoration of the recovered sherds. Ceramics also played an important role in dating strata of the archaeological deposits and illustrating relationships among those strata. Native American Ceramics A small collection of Native American (colloquially called “Papago”) ceramic sherds was recovered from postcemetery archaeological features across the Joint Courts Complex project area. Historical-period Native American ceramic analysis focused on changes in type, form, and function over time and how those attributes correlated with households of different ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds. The historical-period Native American ceramics (n = 1,277) were classified using the typology outlined by Fontana et al. (1962), with consideration taken of additions and revisions made by others (Bruder 1975; Doelle 1983; Haury 1950; Whittlesey 1997; Wood 1987). Approximately 85 percent (n = 1,085) of historical-period Native American ceramics were Papago Red sherds. Papago Red vessels were most commonly large jars, or ollas, used by Tucsonans of all backgrounds for keeping water cool, before the advent of refrigeration (Fontana et al. 1962). The distribution of these sherds suggests that Papago Red water jars were used by people of all classes in the project area for storing and cooling water, particularly between 1890 and 1920. Other identified historicalperiod Native American ceramic-sherd types included Papago Black-on-red, Brown, plain, and glaze-ware 40 Chapter 4 • Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component vessels. Native American ceramic frequencies within the Joint Courts Complex project area were calculated separately from non–Native American ceramic analyses. Kerry L. Sagebiel conducted the analysis of the historical-period Native American ceramics, and a full report can be found in Appendix I. Glass and Metal Tablewares In addition to the characteristic ceramic-tableware items, nonceramic tableware and culinary material culture represent an important part of foodways that were practiced in the project area. Nonceramic-tableware artifacts primarily represented material culture made from glass or metal, with a smaller collection of shapedbone, stone, and mineral items, and were manufactured during the early-twentieth century. Nearly 700 nonceramic-tableware and culinary artifacts were recovered from postcemetery contexts across the project area. Nonceramic-tableware artifacts included the remains of drinking vessels and silverware, whereas culinary artifacts were primarily cooking vessels and cooking utensils. Whenever possible, a minimum number of items was estimated to provide a more subjective quantification of the number of items represented by the mass of recovered glass and metal fragments. All of these artifacts were employed in the consumption and production of food. Because tableware and culinary items are part of a larger, sophisticated culinary tradition, these artifacts can contribute to insights into the cultural, social, and economic lifeways of Tucson’s past. Glass tableware artifacts were the most prevalent material class within the nonceramic-tableware collection. The glass vessels varied with respect to decorative technique, which sometimes had implications on monetary value. With the exception of a few hand-blown vessels, glass tableware was primarily machinemade, and decorations were largely press molded. Press molding allows for the completion of sophisticated decoration with less skill and labor than other decoration techniques, such as glass cutting. Press molding was largely automated by the end of the nineteenth century and is primarily characterized by visible mold seams. This decorative technique was originally discovered during the late-seventeenth century but greatly increased during the 1860s and 1870s. It remains a common decorative technique today (Jones and Sullivan 1989:33–35). Embossing was also identified on a few molded vessels from postcemetery contexts in the project area. Embossed vessels—glass vessels with molded numbers or letters—were typically medicine containers or measuring cups (Jones and Sullivan 1989:76). Etching was the second-most-common decorative technique. Glass etching is done by treating the surface of the glass with wax that is resistant to corrosion by acids. A desired design is carved into the wax, and the decorated area is exposed to acid that attacks the exposed surface of select portions of the vessel. The result is a frosted, obscured effect (Jones and Sullivan 1989:55). Glass cutting (or engraving) was the third-most-common form of decoration seen on glass tableware artifacts. Glass cutting uses various sharp tools to engrave a variety of decorations, and the process can be recognized by the sharpness of lines in the resulting design. Certain glass-cutting techniques have been employed since the late-sixteenth century and continued in popularity into the nineteenth century, with expensive vessels remaining popular to the present (Jones and Sullivan 1989:55–57). Because cutting and engraving glass is primarily done by hand, it is comparatively labor intensive and requires the talents of a skilled artisan, therefore commanding a higher retail price than other decorative techniques. Glass tableware vessels were largely drinking vessels, with a small number of decorative bowls and serving vessels. Various tumblers composed the majority of glass tableware artifacts in most features. Tumblers varied widely in size but were specifically designed, manufactured, and intended for use as drinking vessels (Jones and Sullivan 1989:143). Certain tumblers served an initial purpose as jelly jars or were packed with other foodstuffs, some were designed to be reused for drinking, and others were repurposed as drinking vessels. Stemware vessels were primarily press-molded, decorative glasses but also contained a few undecorated wine glasses. A number of molded, decorative serving vessels, such as butter pats and small bowls, were also recovered from postcemetery contexts in the project area. Metal culinary artifacts were primarily fragments of enamelware cooking pots and pans. Enamelware from the project area was primarily gray and white, colors which were most popular prior to 1900 (Polk 2006). Although these artifacts compose the largest portion of the nonceramic-tableware collection, other items, such as decorative dishes and bowls, and eating and serving utensils, provide useful insights into the daily lives of local residents. 41 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Food and Beverage Containers An assortment of glass and metal food and beverage containers was recovered from Joint Courts Complex postcemetery contexts. Glass food containers consisted of bottles, jars, and canning jars, and metal containers consisted of cans. Beverage containers consisted of bottles and cans. Beverage bottles for which beverage types were not identified were termed “unidentified beverage.” Alcoholic-beverage containers are discussed separately. Also discussed in this section are bottle and jar closures for both whole and fragmented vessels. Closures included glass and metal jar-lid liners, metal jar screw tops, metal “Kork ‘n Seal” caps, corks, glass stoppers, and metal crown caps. Crown caps were used to seal soda-pop bottles, beer bottles, and bottles containing other liquids; because it is not usually possible to determine which bottles they sealed, they have been grouped in this section for discussion. Glass, cork, and rubber stoppers were used to seal commercial containers, such as condiment bottles. As with the crown caps, it was generally not possible to determine which bottles they sealed, and so some stoppers described in the food and beverage containers sections (excluding glass) may have actually come from medicine or liquor bottles. In most cases, method of opening for cans was absent or unidentified because the cans were highly fragmented and crushed. When can-opening method could be identified, it is noted in the individual block and lot discussions. Standard datable artifacts include crown caps, “Kork ‘n Seal” caps, glass stoppers, canning-jar closures, cans, and colors of glass. Crown caps indicate manufacture after about 1895 (Lief 1965:17). “Kork ‘n Seal” caps date between 1911 and the 1960s (Lindsey 2009). Glass stoppers were in common use in the United States by the 1840s or 1850s (Lindsey 2009), but the technology was quickly outpaced by numerous innovations in container closure at the turn of the twentieth century (Lief 1965:13–30). Identification of specific commercial brands, such as Lea & Perrins’, provide tighter date ranges (1838–1840 until 1957 [Zumwalt 1980:269]). Canning-jar closures are temporally diagnostic and include continuously threaded caps, lightning seals, zinc screw caps, and milk-glass lid liners. Continuously threaded closures indicate a manufacture date as early as 1924 (Lief 1965:27). Lightning-type closures on canning jars indicate manufacture from the 1870s to the mid-twentieth century (Lindsey 2009). Zinc screw caps and milk-glass lid liners were produced from 1869 until the mid-twentieth century (Lindsey 2009). Hole-in-cap, hole-in-top, and sanitary cans indicate manufacture from 1820 to 1930, from 1900 to 1945, and after 1904, respectively (Horn 2005:4; Polk 2006; Sutton and Arkush 2002:165). Aqua and colorless glass that turns purple from sun exposure (also known as sun-colored amethyst) suggests manufacture between 1880 and 1920. Because bottles and canning jars were commonly reused, some of the artifacts may have been discarded long after their date of manufacture. Food and beverage containers were recovered from 17 (77 percent) of the 22 blocks and lots in the project area. Block 254, Lot 7, yielded the bulk of food and beverage containers (see Chapter 16). Bottles were the most prevalent food and beverage containers from postcemetery contexts across the site. Most features contained both home-canning and commercially packaged food containers. Although not always conclusive, attempts were made to determine the level of household reliance on each, based on their relative numbers. Separate disposal practices for different types of containers could also account for disparity in the relative frequencies of these artifacts. Liquor Bottles The consumption of alcohol has been a widespread phenomenon in America since the earliest Euroamerican arrivals to the New World. These immigrants brought with them a tradition of alcohol consumption that found its way into the ceremonial, religious, and everyday aspects of life for most social groups and all classes. As evidenced by bottles recovered from the Joint Courts Complex project area, the consistent consumption of alcohol continued throughout the historical period in Tucson. Analysis of alcohol-bottle types and shapes provides information on the varieties of alcoholic beverages consumed in the project area and some aspects of the social status of those who discarded the vessels. Alcohol bottles were frequently designed specifically for the beverages they contained. Wine and champagne usually were more expensive than widely available beer and distilled spirits. Wine and champagne bottles also have distinctive forms designed specifically for these beverages. Bottles that contain wine typically have a distinctive depression on the base, called a pushup or kickup, that was designed to catch sediment in the beverage and thereby prevent the accidental drinking of this sediment. Champagne bottles also have a kickup and are made of thicker glass, in order to prevent the vessel from breaking under pressure from the carbonated contents (Jones and Sullivan 1989). Distinctive distilled-spirits vessels include a variety of 42 Chapter 4 • Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component flasks that have been popular in the United States throughout the historical period (Lindsey 2009). Green or brown glass was typically used for alcoholic-beverage vessels prior to widespread refrigeration to prevent the contents from spoilage associated with exposure to light (Lindsey 2009). Beer and distilled-spirits bottles frequently have embossed logos that indicate manufacturer information, which is an important resource for archaeologists. Some of these beverages were only made for a limited time period, allowing for tight dating of archaeological features, strata, and collections. For archaeologists, alcoholic-beverage containers are also important for interpretation because not all alcoholic beverages were equivalent in cost; they can, therefore, provide insights into the economic status of site residents. Wine and champagne have historically commanded a higher price in the United States and are considered drinks of sophistication. Beer and distilled spirits also have a hierarchy of economic worth, but these beverages were often made locally and could even be made by individual households. The ease of manufacture made beer and distilled spirits the preferred beverage of the working class, and beer and distilledspirits bottles are found at archaeological sites more often than wine or champagne vessels (Lindsey 2009). The distribution, density, and frequency of alcoholic-beverage containers also provide a data set that allows for archaeological discussion of site-specific class and economic status and changes in status over time. Alcohol bottles from postcemetery contexts were divided into three main categories: beer, distilled spirits, and wine or champagne. These categories were based on bottle characteristics, such as shape, glass color, finish, and (if present) label. Both glass and ceramic alcohol bottles were identified in the collection; unless specified otherwise, alcohol-bottle fragments described are glass. Although the bottle contents were readily recognized by the recovered fragments, the number of bottles represented by these fragments required inference by the analyzing archaeologists. When broken, a given bottle can shatter into any number of shards. In order to estimate the most likely number of bottles represented by shards recovered from each feature, a minimum vessel count (MVC) was established based on whole bottles and diagnostic shards, especially bases and finishes. Estimates of MVC allow a better understanding of the quantity of vessels represented by miscellaneous shards and of how those vessels were distributed within features and across the project area (for a discussion, see Sussman 2000). Alcohol bottles were dated based primarily on manufacturing characteristics and the periods of operation for bottle and beverage manufacturers. Known historical events in the United States affected the distribution of alcoholic beverages, especially during the Prohibition period (1915–1933) (Sonnichsen 1987:182), but this was difficult to discern using bottle-manufacturing data from the alcoholic-beverage-bottle collection in the Joint Courts Complex project area. This is because the largest bottle manufacturers that were responsible for the majority of alcoholic-beverage containers in the project area stayed in business throughout the Prohibition period, sometimes repurposing their bottles as necessary, and because U.S. residents circumvented the law using a number of means, including giving away alcohol for free and smuggling from across the Canadian and Mexican borders. Clothing and Clothing Fasteners An assortment of clothing fabric and fasteners was recovered from Joint Courts Complex postcemetery contexts. Identifiable clothing fabric included cotton, silk, synthetics, leather, multiple materials, and wool. Clothing fasteners included buttons, fly buttons, cinch buckles, safety pins, rivets, snaps, hooks and eyes, straight pins, collar/cuff studs, suspender clasps, eyelets, garter/hosiery hardware, and corset hardware. Buttons consisted of shell, Prosser (ceramic), metal, wood, glass, bone, and rubber materials. Known button types are referenced in the text and include sew-through, cross-bar/D-hole shank, uniform shank, Omega shank, and cloth-covered shank. Other shank types are discussed where present. Garter/hosiery hardware included small buckles, clasps, and hooks, and corset hardware included stays, hooks and eyes, cinch buckles, and eyelets. Clothing type may sometimes be inferred based on the kind of clothing fastener used; for example, pants may be represented by rivets and/or buttons, and shirts, shirtwaists, and skirts may be represented by buttons, collar/cuff studs, and/or snaps. Clothing type may also be deduced based on button size and attachment. Historically, buttons were measured and advertised in “lines” (see Chapter 6 in Volume 2 of this series). Buttons typically measuring 10–14 lines were used on lingerie, dress shirts, and babies’ clothing. Standard shirt-button sizes ranged from 16 to 20 lines, and 22–30-line buttons were used on dresses and vests. Pants buttons generally measured 22–24 lines, suspender buttons were 26–30 lines, and coat buttons 43 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest measured 32–36 lines (Swope et al. 1997:124). Clothing manufacture and repair is suggested by the presence of straight and safety pins. Baby clothing is indicated by the presence of large safety pins. Buttons are also indicators of gender and economic status (Sutton and Arkush 2002; White 2005). For instance, although it cannot be known with certainty, decorative and ornate buttons can suggest the presence of women, and work, casual, and fine dress may be suggested based on a button’s decoration and attachment. Casual and work clothing generally had plain, sew-through buttons, and fine dress was often represented by ornate buttons with metal loop shanks (Sutton and Arkush 2002:212). Clothing fasteners were recovered from 14 (64 percent) of the 22 blocks and lots in the project area. Block 254, Lot 7, yielded the bulk of clothing fasteners and fabric (see Chapter 16). Clothing fabric was recovered from 8 (36 percent) of the 22 blocks and lots in the project area. Cotton was the most common fabric type across the site, and undecorated buttons were the most prevalent clothing fasteners across the site, both suggesting that work and/or casual attire may have been more commonly worn or discarded. Although over a thousand clothing fasteners were recovered from postcemetery contexts across the project area, they were generally retrieved in small batches. No more than five matching buttons were recovered from any one context, and most buttons were unmatched among examples from the same context. Multiple hook-and-eye fasteners from a single feature suggested that whole garments incorporating that closure were discarded. No specific garments could be identified by corresponding fabric and buttons. This could indicate that garments were not discarded intact or that preservation of clothing was not good; however, the field and laboratory sampling strategies that were employed complicate such a determination. Footwear Footwear (n= 1,701) from postcemetery contexts in the project area yielded leather representing uppers, shoe soles and heels, rubber shoe parts, shoe hardware, and shoelaces. One information source applied in the analysis of footwear in the collection was Anderson (1968), one of the few guides to nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century shoe fragments. This reference is based on work performed at Tucson sites. Terminology used in that source is applied here. Unfortunately, shoes in this collection were not particularly temporally diagnostic, because the technologies identified here were developed in the decades preceding occupation of this neighborhood. Personal Artifacts A variety of personal artifacts were recovered from postcemetery contexts. Personal artifacts consisted of health/hygiene items, jewelry, beauty/cosmetic items, and other items generally associated with an individual. Health and hygiene items included glass bottles, vials, thermometers, rod applicators, eye droppers, glass and ceramic jars, hard rubber and/or unidentified plastic combs, rubber and glass fountain syringes, irrigators, rubber tubing, hot-water bottles, metal straight and safety razors, inhalers, hypodermic needles, and bone toothbrushes. Beauty and cosmetic items consisted of glass bottles and jars, bone hairbrushes, metal containers, and a metal curling iron. Accessories, including jewelry, were composed of beads (glass, metal, and bone), metal and unidentified plastic hairpins, metal lapel pins, pocket-watch chains, cufflinks, brooches, pendants, medallions, medal pins, metal and bone rings, and metal and unidentified plastic barrettes/hair clips. Glass and metal closures related to personal-use containers are also discussed. Closures included metal perforated tops, screw tops/lids, metal and cork stoppers with applicators, corks, and glass stoppers. Temporally diagnostic artifacts in this category were few. Glass color provided some idea of the age of the artifacts. Sun-colored amethyst glass (often termed SCA) suggests manufacture between 1880 and 1920 (Polk 2006). Milk glass was popular in the United States by the 1870s (Anonymous 1951:n.p.; Welker and Welker 1985:7), and it remained popular throughout the turn of the twentieth century. Pressed milk-glass jars commonly contained cosmetic creams, medicinal ointments, and even foodstuffs, such as cream cheese. Similarities between some containers that once held personal products and others that held medicinal preparations complicated the assignment of artifacts within those categories. Assignment of jars to the personal 44 Chapter 4 • Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component category was based on shape and decoration. Artifacts were only included in the discussion of medicine containers when it was certain that they once held medicinal preparations. Jet and black-glass jewelry and buttons were popular throughout the nineteenth century, and although black-glass jewelry is commonly referred to as “jet,” it should be noted that the black-glass examples are imitations of the rarer examples made of the actual mineral, jet. After Queen Victoria chose black-glass buttons for her personal wardrobe, the fashion “remained to be taken for granted as always in good taste, correct for all time. The simple, faceted ones in solid black suited the most dignified matron or lady in mourning” (Albert and Adams 1951:72–73), and others were more decorative or fanciful (Albert and Adams 1951:72–73; Leisch 1995:64). Mourning earrings were common by the Civil War (Leisch 1995:64) and were advertised in the Sears, Roebuck, and Company catalog (Sears catalog) as late as 1902 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1902:n.p.). The second half of the nineteenth century has been called the “golden age” of perfumes (Shuman 2003:78), with various glass manufacturers producing perfume bottles in a vast array of shapes and sizes, incorporating myriad decorative techniques. Many perfume bottles from that period bore company marks that assist in the assignment of production date ranges. Straight-edge razors typically bore maker’s marks on the tangs of the blades, but the condition of blades in this collection rendered it impossible to discern any marks that might assist in assigning dates to the artifacts. During the nineteenth century, most straight razors were manufactured in Germany or England; the transition from straight to safety razors began ca. 1885 (Schroeder 1970:1–2, 70–71). The “unidentified plastic” material class in this section refers to early plastics, those produced around the turn of the twentieth century, such as Bakelite, Lucite, and celluloid. In many cases, it was not possible to distinguish among them without applying destructive analyses. Collectors’ resources often do not provide information to allow a distinction to be made and sometimes recommend such tests as scratching and the use of chemical cleaning products. Chemical testing was not performed on plastic artifacts recovered from postcemetery contexts in the project area, as it may have complicated long-term curation. Bakelite was developed around 1907 and was commonly used for a wide variety of objects until 1942 (American Chemical Society 2010; The Carrotbox 2010). It is electrically nonconductive and heat resistant, lending these properties to automotive and electrical applications. Literature regarding an end date for Bakelite production is contradictory; apparently, a plastic with similar chemical properties remains in production today. According to the American Chemical Society (2010), Bakelite has been recognized as a National Historic Chemical Landmark as the world’s first completely synthetic plastic. First commercially manufactured in the 1870s, celluloid was produced for its ability to simulate tortoise shell, coral, ivory, amber, and jet (Robinson 2006). Celluloid was eventually replaced with other substances in the 1920s because of its flammable tendencies (Robinson 2006). Lucite, or acrylic glass, was developed as a glass substitute in 1931 by DuPont and continues to be produced by Lucite International (Lucite International 2007). Modern plastics run the spectrum, from soft plastic used for bags and in packaging to resilient plastic used in toy manufacture, to hard plastics used in the automobile and aerospace industries. Personal artifacts were recovered from 14 (64 percent) of the 22 blocks and lots in the project area. Block 254, Lot 6, yielded the most personal artifacts (see Chapter 16). Beauty/cosmetic items were the most prevalent personal artifacts from postcemetery contexts across the site. Medicine Containers and Medicines Bottles representing a variety of pharmaceutical products from nationwide and local producers were the primary form of medicine containers recovered in postcemetery contexts in the Joint Courts Complex project area. Drug containers could frequently be identified by patented bottle shapes and designs in the United States at the close of the nineteenth century. Based on bottle shape and embossing, most medicine bottles recovered contained treatments for internal and external ailments that were common complaints at the end of the nineteenth century. Medicine-bottle embossing is useful for determining the vessel’s former contents, but it also can provide information on the bottle manufacturer, dates of production, bottle style, the pharmacy for which a bottle was made (Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999), and the product contained in the bottle. Fike’s (2006) book on historical-period medicine bottles and Toulouse’s (1971) monograph on bottle manufacturers were used extensively to decipher bottle embossing. 45 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Medicine production in the United States during the last half of the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth century was dominated by patent and proprietary medicine manufacturers, but professional pharmacists were also able to serve the medicinal needs of patients willing to seek their assistance. Drug manufacturers were prolific marketers and managed to distribute their products across the country, frequently under the guise of well-known brand names. Mail-order companies, such as Sears, Roebuck, and Company and Montgomery Ward, facilitated the national distribution of medicines. Professional pharmacists played a central role in medicine in the United States despite the proliferation of for-profit medical practitioners. With the increased development of academic pharmacology departments and an expansion of research in the pharmaceutical sciences at the close of the nineteenth century, medicines improved in effectiveness and reliability (Swann 1990:79–85). Traditional pharmacists compounded medicines designed to treat specific ailments using timeless natural and synthetic ingredients. Legislation, such as the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act, which required disclosure of a medicine’s contents, did much to increase the legitimacy of medicines in the United States (Harmon 2003). As trust in pharmacology spread throughout the country and well-trained pharmacists advocated for the professionalization of their trade, the proliferation of patent and proprietary medicine decreased (Sonnedecker et al. 2002). Medicine bottles and bottle fragments recovered from the Joint Courts Complex project area are a snapshot of the pharmaceutical industry taken at the transition from the patent-medicine era to that of the modern pharmacopoeia that we know today. In addition to medicine bottles, a smaller collection of medicine-related glass and metal medicinal artifacts were also recovered during the project. A number of small-diameter glass-tube fragments were recovered from various archaeological features. Glass tubing was used for a number of medical paraphernalia prior to the widespread use of plastic, including test tubes, syringe barrels and plungers, and ampoules. Although the specific use for many of these medicinal glass-tubing fragments is unknown, these artifacts were used to deliver or temporarily store medicine until it was needed. Glass dose cups, vessels marked for a measured dose of a given medicine, were also recovered from multiple features. These dose cups from postcemetery features were also used as bottle closures for specific medicine bottles. Metal medicine-related container artifacts were rare. A ferrous pill box and a metal Bayer-aspirin-bottle lid were the only identified metal medicine container artifacts. Recreation-Related Artifacts Over 200 recreation-related artifacts were recovered from postcemetery contexts, including sporting equipment, various toys and toy parts, musical instruments, and camera parts. Other miniature ceramic figures are identified as toys in this narrative; toy-marble manufacturers frequently also produced miniature ceramic objects for play (American Toy Marble Museum 2008:1). Doll parts accounted for almost half of the collection and included parian and glazed-porcelain body parts, some hand-painted, and whole or fragmented glass eyes. It was not possible to determine from extant fragments whether glass eyes in this collection were the fixed or “sleep” type (Foulke 2003:314–315). Prior to 1891, there were no regulations for marking ceramic dolls, and manufacturers were inconsistent in their use of marks. After 1891, U.S. trade law required that imported goods be marked with the country of origin, and although dolls were marked after that date, some companies marked only packaging or used paper labels or stickers that would not survive play, much less postdepositional factors. Numerous guides to doll marks and other identifying characteristics exist that, in many cases, allow identification of manufacturers and production dates. It should be noted that many porcelain factories made only doll bodies and limbs, and many dolls were made with heads from one manufacturer and body parts from another, with marks appearing in various places. Mold marks may provide a year during which a specific doll was introduced; however, no specific dates of manufacture could be determined for fragments in this collection. Marbles and other toys were almost as numerous in this collection as doll parts. Marbles included clay, earthenware, porcelain, and glass examples. Most measured just over 1/2 inch in diameter, indicating that they were “targets,” but a few were larger (approximately 3/4 inch in diameter) and likely were used as “shooters” (American Toy Marble Museum 2009:144). Artifacts representing adult recreational activities were recovered in smaller quantities. These included sporting equipment, a quadracycle, musical instruments, and camera parts. Fish hooks are included in this 46 Chapter 4 • Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component category, but ammunition was placed in the weaponry category in this analysis. Both of these artifact types could have represented either a recreational activity or a tool used to supplement a household food budget. Smoking Paraphernalia Materials excavated from postcemetery contexts included over 60 smoking-related artifacts, ranging from smoking pipes and ashtrays to snuff jars and pocket tobacco tins. Tobacco tins were sold in England as early as 1764 but were not introduced in this form to U.S. markets until 1892 (Rock 1987:61). White kaolin-clay smoking pipes were first produced in England ca. 1600, following the introduction of American tobacco. They have been produced by various companies, using different molds and materials, up through the present day. Hard rubber, sometimes used to produce smoking-pipe stems, was available on the market by the mid1800s, and Bakelite plastic, used in the same way, was used for pipe stems beginning in 1907 (Miller et al. 2000:16). Snuff was marketed in square amber jars; Levi Garrett snuff is sold today in nearly identical jars (Conwood Company n.d.). Following the invention of an early cigarette-producing machine in 1881, cigarettes dropped in price and increased dramatically in popularity, becoming a significant part of U.S. culture until the second half of the twentieth century (Burns 2007). Communication-Related Artifacts Artifacts in the communication category included writing implements, ink bottles, fragmented newspapers and magazines, elements of typesetter’s stock, and rubber stamps. Of these artifacts, ink bottles provided the most temporally diagnostic information, revealed in maker’s marks and product embossments or labels. Newspapers revealed additional temporal data, as well as information about the availability of reading material and the reading preferences of site occupants. Interestingly, no telephone, radio, or television parts were identified in the collection. Weaponry Nearly 200 weaponry artifacts were excavated from postcemetery contexts. This artifact category was concentrated on firearms and included gun parts, percussion caps, bullets, complete cartridges, cartridge casings, shotgun buckshot, and shotgun shells. No bladed weapons were recovered from the Joint Courts Complex project area. Analysis of dimensions, manufacturers’ headstamps, and other diagnostic attributes provided information on dates of manufacture, caliber, and possible uses. Ammunition in this collection was made for use with a number of popular handguns and rifles designed for hunting and self-defense. Cartridges originally designed for military use were also identified. Many of these cartridges and shells were introduced in the mid-nineteenth century and continue to be manufactured in the present. Commerce-Related Artifacts Included in the commerce-related artifact category are items involved in the purchase and trade of goods. Whereas some of the coins almost certainly represented monetary objects, others may have been curated as souvenirs. Artifacts in the category included coins, tokens, a balance scale, a mining crucible, and multiple paper store receipts. The coins, where legible, and paper store receipts proved useful in the dating of feature deposits. 47 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Transportation-Related Artifacts Artifacts in the transportation category were numerically few but provided many interesting lines of archaeological interpretation, especially when combined with the architectural history of the postcemetery component of the project area. Transportation artifacts spanned the period of conversion from horse-powered personal transportation to the widespread adoption of the automobile. Railroad-related artifacts, such as railroad spikes, were also included in this category. The presence of railroad-related transportation artifacts is attributed to the proximity of the project area to the Southern Pacific Railroad line and to the fact that some of the project area’s residents worked for the Southern Pacific Railroad. Transportation artifacts in this collection were primarily composed of equine-care tools and automobile-related material culture, mixed with a small portion of railroad-related items. Construction-Material, Hardware-Related, Machinery-Related, and UtilitiesRelated Artifacts The construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts categories composed a large portion of the artifact collection from postcemetery contexts, with nearly 18,000 artifacts recovered. Construction materials included ceramic, glass, and metal artifacts employed in the fabrication and maintenance of buildings and machines in the project area. Among the artifacts in this category were raw materials, like bricks, milled lumber, concrete, and glass, as well as the fasteners that held these materials together, such as nails, screws, and bolts. Fragments of the electrical and plumbing infrastructure were also included in the constructionmaterials category. The hardware category was made up of the utensils used to construct and maintain the built environment and was focused on tools like hammers, chisels, planes, and wrenches. Also included in this category were miscellaneous machinery parts that were not attributed to electrical devices or automobiles. When possible to determine, paint color on milled wood, plaster, and in paint cans was noted. This category provided insight into the materials and tools used to create the built environment of the project area during the historical period. The construction-materials category was defined by the primary function of the diverse collection of recovered artifacts. Unidentified items were also included in the construction-materials and hardware-related categories if they were most likely used for construction or maintenance. Although most of the artifacts in this category were not datable, a few items were associated with developments in their manufacture. One example is can fragments, which can be roughly dated based on manufacturing characteristics. The sanitary can is identified by its characteristic double-rolled lip and interlocking side seam. This type of can quickly came to dominate the food market after its introduction in 1904 (Rock 2000:279), but it was also used to contain nonfood commodities, such as paint. Paint cans from postcemetery contexts all had overlapping side seams and rolled lips, although the closures on these vessels differed from those used on food cans. Another broadly datable construction-materials artifact type is nails. Steel-cut nails were most prevalent between the 1880s and 1920s, and steel-wire nails came to dominate the market after the 1920s (Wells 1989:87). Whereas other artifact categories have more-specific dates, the rough dates reflected in the construction-materials and hardware-related categories contribute to the data set and cannot be overlooked. Nail shapes and sizes are frequently used for specific construction projects, and the use of a nail can be roughly inferred by its form. Despite the fact that the overwhelming majority of nails were wire nails, this artifact type was found in a variety of shapes designed for specific uses. Nail heads are a good indicator of use. Finishing nails are small-headed nails useful for construction tasks that require the nail’s head to be hidden (e.g., woodwork or flooring). Roofing nails have broad heads designed to resist pull through asphalt-composite roofing. The majority of nails in the project area were all-purpose, common nails with large heads, those commonly used in most construction projects. Nails are measured in pennyweight (signified by a number followed by the letter “d”), which was historically related to the price per hundred but now signifies only length (Reader’s Digest Association 1973:68–69). Smaller-sized common nails (1d–3d) were historically used for boxes, and middle-sized nails (6d–10d) were employed in general construction. Duplex48 Chapter 4 • Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component headed nails (also called double-headed nails, two-headed nails, or form nails) were rare in the project area but were used for temporary construction and scaffolding (Reader’s Digest Association 1973:68). Lighting and Electrical Equipment Residential occupation in the project area spanned the transition from the use of oil lamps to the use of gas and electrical lighting. Not surprisingly, numerous artifacts were recovered that represent lighting and electrical components. The project area neighborhood was fully electrified by the time the 1922 Sanborn Fire Insurance map was prepared and probably had been for at least 20 years by that time. The first appearance of electric lighting in the project area was in the form of street lights, and there may have been some lag between the availability of electricity and the installation of electrical systems in existing homes. Presumably, however, local residents made use of the technology as soon as it became feasible to do so. There may have been some continued use of other forms of lighting after electricity was installed. Over 1,500 artifacts relating to lighting and electricity were recovered from postcemetery contexts, including battery parts, electrical components, insulators, fuses, and over 1,300 lamp or lightbulb parts. The battery parts included rechargeable lead-acid batteries, first invented by Gaston Plante in 1859, as well as dry-cell batteries; the zinc-carbon dry-cell battery was invented by Carl Gassner in 1881 (Bellis 2009). It is recognized that rechargeable batteries were used for a variety of functions, including lighting, transportation, and machinery, but they were included in this category in the absence of good contextual data regarding their original functions. Although both glass and porcelain insulators were in wide use by the mid-1800s, excavations recovered only ceramic insulators, more commonly associated with power lines (in contrast to the glass models, which were preferred for telegraph and telephone lines) (Farrar 2001). Lighting apparatus included both kerosene/oil lamps and electrical lightbulbs, as well as lamp globes. Decorative motifs found on lamp globes/chimneys included pie-crust or crimped patterns around the rim, a style that was popularized in the 1870s and typical of lamps made from ca. 1885 into the twentieth century (Pyne Press 1972:111; Woodhead et al. 1984:61–62). Both hand-crimped and template-crimped chimney crowns were observed in this collection; however, because machine crimping was in use in the United States as early as 1877 (Woodhead et al. 1984:62), the two techniques do not help to refine our understanding of the chronology of occupation in the project area. Household Artifacts An assortment of household-related artifacts was recovered from postcemetery contexts. Household artifacts consisted of nonarchitectural hardware (e.g., furniture parts, keys, and upholstery tacks), appliance parts, decorative objects, bottles and jugs that once contained household chemicals, and other miscellaneous items. Most artifact types in this category are not readily datable. Of the few standard, datable household artifacts, those manufactured from colorless glass that turns purple from sun exposure (also known as sun-colored amethyst, or SCA), which was manufactured between 1880 and 1920, were the most common. Household artifacts were recovered from 15 (68 percent) of the 22 blocks and lots in the project area. Block 254, Lot 7, yielded the most household artifacts. Nonarchitectural hardware was the most prevalent household artifact type from postcemetery contexts across the site. Faunal Remains Faunal remains were recovered from 38 postcemetery features, and in all, nearly 28,000 bones, bone fragments, eggshells, mollusk and arthropod shells, and shell fragments were analyzed from Joint Courts Complex postcemetery contexts. Most of the bones represented large, domesticated taxa, in particular cattle and bone 49 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest from unidentified cow-sized taxa. Second most common were bones of sheep/goats and sheep-sized taxa. The animal bones recovered from the project area provide information regarding human and animal relationships, on several levels. Many of the bones represented animals that were raised to be consumed, such as cattle, pigs, and sheep. Chickens were likely raised on-site, as well as purchased, and may have been more important for their eggs than for their meat. Game birds and mammals were hunted for sport or for eating, and some animals were killed as pests. But other taxa indicated other behaviors. Dog and cat burials and the presence of pet remains in privies and cesspits showed different relationships between humans and their smaller companions. Taken all together, these data help to illuminate the complexity of humans and their relationships with other animals. The analyzed invertebrate collection recovered from postcemetery features included over 200 pieces of shell representing approximately 80 specimens. Of these, 3 represented worked shell. Collectively, the analyzed sample was made up of mostly marine mollusks, consisting of more than 20 marine taxa, as well as a few marine arthropods (e.g., crab and barnacle) (Table 5). Floral Remains Archaeobotanical analysis for the Joint Courts Complex project was conducted by Dr. Karen Adams, who produced the data set for the following analysis (Adams 2009b). The results of the macrobotanical analyses and their historical context are included in Appendix J. Botanical samples recovered from postcemetery archaeological features at the site revealed the presence and use of at least 31 taxa of plants. The identified species included both native plants and plants introduced from the Old World. Most of the nonnative plants represented foods brought to the region by Spanish and Mexican farmers as early as the eighteenth century. An ethnographic record exists for Native American use of most identified native plants as food, or for medicine or fiber, but some of these species were most likely not used by Hispanic or Euroamerican people, because local foodways differed during the historical period. An unwanted plant species (i.e., goathead) known for its spiky nutlets indicated the historical-period presence of an unwanted, nonnative plant. Identified wood fragments were the remains of architectural lumber, home furnishings, and locally available tree species. The botanical data can be used as a representation of the diverse inventory of food, medicinal, and ornamental plants available to the Euroamerican and Hispanic residents of the Joint Courts Complex project area at the dawn of the twentieth century. It is also a chronicle of local plants growing near the Tucson Basin during the historical period. Plant species and taxa in Table 6 were identified in Adams’ archaeobotanical analysis (Adams 2009b). Pollen Samples Palynological research indicated that most of the identified species were native to the region prior to development of the project area. The following summary is from palynological samples analyzed by Dr. Karl J. Reinhard. The full report can be found in Appendix K. Native upland vegetation on a landform like the Joint Courts Complex project area would have been part of the Sonoran Desert uplands. Plants characteristic to this zone include creosotebush (Larrea tridentata), paloverde (Parkinsonia microphylla), and saguaro (Carnegia gigantea) (Brown 1982). Within this upland environment were several localized riparian zones that would have been vegetated with members of the Chenopodiaceae family, including saltbush (Atriplex canescens, A. polycarpa), pigweed (Amaranthus sp.), and carelessweed (Amaranthus palmeri). Shrubs in the sunflower family, such as desert broom (Baccharis sarothroides) and seepwillow (Baccharis salicifolia), would have been abundant. Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) and blue paloverde (Parkinsonia florida) would have also been present. Upland riparian areas could have supported such trees as cottonwood (Populus), ash (Fraxinus), willow (Salix), sycamore (Platanus), and walnut (Juglans) and such herbaceous plants as cattail (Typha spp.) and bulrushes (Scirpus spp.). 50 Moderately porous, refined earthenware, fired at 1,150–1,250°C. Low-porosity, refined earthenware, fired at 1,250– 1,520°C. Very porous, unrefined earthenware, fired at 950– 1,100°C. Very porous, unrefined earthenware, fired at 950– 1,100°C. Dense, highly vitreous (low-porosity) ware, though Numerous regional varieties in the United States and kitchen and storage vessels, plastic ball clays used in its manufacture are coarser Europe; American salt-glazed stoneware, 1705–1930; bottles, jars, tablewares than those used for porcelain, fired at 1,200–1,400°C. and Bristol-glazed wares, 1835–present. Dense, highly vitreous (low-porosity), translucent, white-bodied ware. Hardpaste— biscuit fired at 815– 900°C; glost fired at 1,350–1,550°C. Bone china— biscuit fired at 1,205–1,315°C; glost fired at 900– 1,095°C. Vitreous, white-bodied earthenware Coarse earthenware Northern Mexico coarse earthenwares Stoneware Porcelain and bone china Note: From Majewski 2006; Majewski and O’Brien 1987; Miller et al. 2000; and Thiel, personal communication 2009. Hardpaste (after 600 A.D. in Asia; after early 1700s on the European continent and 1782 in England), Bone china (after 1790s in England), Industrial porcelain, bisque/parian, and electrical porcelain. Mexican red-bodied and gray-bodied wares. Numerous regional varieties in the United States, terra cotta. Hotelware and Hotel China (late 1800s). Many names, including White Granite, Ironstone, and semiporcelain (after 1840s). ca. 1600s– present ca. 1500s– 1800s ca. 1600s– present ca. 1880s– present 1840s– present 1700s– present Dates (in the U.S.) fine tablewares, decorative ca. 1700s– vessels, figurines and dolls, present toilets, electrical insulators cooking and storage vessels, ollas utilitarian vessels, storage, bricks, flower pots, tiles commercial tablewares, utilitarian vessels tablewares, utilitarian vessels tablewares, decorative vessels Semivitreous, whitebodied earthenware Creamware (1760s), Pearlware (after 1779), and white ware (after 1820). Porous, refined earthenware, fired at 1,000–1,150°C. Forms Observed Nonvitreous, whitebodied earthenware Variants Description Body/Paste Table 3. Summary of Ceramic Body Types Identified in Joint Courts Complex Project Postcemetery Contexts Chapter 4 • Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component 51 52 Rings around exterior of vessel, usually earth tones. Polychrome decoration placed over glaze. Decoration painted on by hand; identified in a variety of motifs and themes. Raised decoration molded on vessel prior to glazing, frequently in conjunction with other decoration types. Salt tossed into kiln during firing process to coat bottles and kitchenware and vessel; primarily used on stoneware and covers storage vessels vessel exterior; “orange peel” effect. Colored glaze applied to vessel; can be primary or secondary decorative element. Applied by transferring color from inked copper plates via paper sheets. Annular/banded designs Decal/decalcomania/lithotransfer Enameling/hand-painting Relief molding Salt glazing Slip glazing Transfer printing (underglaze) 1765+ ca. 1900 late 1700s into 1900s after 1884 Dates (in the U.S.) 1780s–present pottery slipped since prehistoric times; here, referring to coloredslip-glazed wares, such as “Fiesta” Note: From Majewski 2006, personal communication 2010; Majewski and O’Brien 1987; Miller et al. 2000; and Samford 1997. tableware primarily tableware starting in the 1600s tableware, decorative vessels throughout the nineteenth and into the twentieth century tableware, decorative vessels tableware, decorative vessels primarily bowls and cups tableware, decorative vessels Color applied to ceramic body with atomizer, usually in conjunction with other decorations. Aerography Forms Observed Description Decoration Types 1820–1850 and 1870– 1890 late 1920s–1930s American salt-glazed stoneware popular until ca. 1930 1840s–1900 1900s ca. 1920–1950 first quarter of the nineteenth century 1890s–1920s Peak of Popularity in America Table 4. Nineteenth-Century and Early-Twentieth-Century Ceramic Decorative Techniques Identified in Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Contexts Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Malacostraca Maxillopoda Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Bivalvia Arthropoda Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Class Arthropoda Phylum Veneroida Veneroida Veneroida Veneroida Veneroida Veneroida Veneroida Ostreoida Ostreoida Ostreoida Ostreoida Ostreoida Mytiloida Decapoda Order Veneridae Veneridae Veneridae Donacidae Chamidae Cardiidae Cardiidae Pectinidae Pectinidae Pectinidae Ostreidae Ostreidae Mytilidae Family Protothaca tenerrima Protothaca staminea Chione californiensis Donax variabilis Pseudochama exogyra Trachycardium quadragenarium Clinocardium nuttallii Euvola vogdesi Argopecten circularis Argopecten irradiana concentricus Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea gigas Mytilus californianus Scientific Name Monterey Bay, California, to Baja California; on sand and mud to 10– 150 feet. Atlantic coast, commercially raised from Washington to northern California ca. 1870–1928; to 10–40 feet. Southern Alaska to northern California and Japan; on rocks, soft mud, firm sand, and intertidally. Alaska to central Mexico coastline; intertidally to 150 feet. Wide range, depending on type; shallow and intertidal waters, attached to rocks, drifting objects, or other organisms. Wide range, depending on type; terrestrial, intertidal, and offshore to 590 feet. Range and Habitat thin-shell littleneck clam continued on next page California coast; intertidal, offshore to 165 feet. Pacific littleneck clam Alaska to southern Baja California; open coast, bays, or lower half of intertidal zone. Santa Barbara, California, to Panama; in sand and bays near low-tide level or offshore to 60–150 feet. Chesapeake Bay to Florida and northern Mexico; in sand and gravel to 150 feet. variable coquina California venus Oregon to southern Baja California; intertidal. Monterey Bay, California, to southern Baja California; in firm sandy mud, in bays and quiet waters to 35–450 feet. Bering Sea to San Diego, California; intertidally to 180 feet. Southern California to Peru; on sand or gravel to 40–130 feet. Pacific jewelbox giant Pacific cockle Nuttall’s cockle concave scallop Pacific calico scallop Santa Barbara, California, to Panama; in sand and bays near low-tide level or offshore, to 60–150 feet. speckled scallop eastern oyster Pacific giant oyster California mussel barnacle crab Common Name Table 5. Invertebrate Fauna Identified in Postcemetery Contexts Chapter 4 • Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component 53 54 Gastropoda Gastropoda Gastropoda Gastropoda Gastropoda Gastropoda Gastropoda Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Mollusca Patellogastropoda Neotaenioglossa Neotaenioglossa Neotaenioglossa Neotaenioglossa Neogastropoda Neogastropoda Strombus alatus Euspira lewisii Crepidula fornicata Hastula cinerea Olivella dama Conus sp. Lotiidae Lottia pelta Cypraeidae Cypraea annettae Strombidae Naticidae Calyptraeidae Terebridae Olividae Conidae Nerita versicolor Mollusca Neogastropoda Neritidae Gastropoda Neritopsina Mollusca Tivela stultorum Gastropoda Veneridae Scientific Name Mollusca Veneroida Family Gastropoda Archaeogastropoda Haliotididae Haliotis rufescens Bivalvia Mollusca Order Mollusca Class Phylum Eastern coast of Florida to Brazil; intertidal. Gulf of California; in sand and mud to 115 feet. San Francisco, California, to southern Baja California; from low-tide line to 100 feet. Central Florida to West Indies; intertidal. Oregon to central Baja California; intertidal, offshore to over 540 feet. Central California to southern Baja California; sand flats and intertidal. Range and Habitat Vancouver Island, British Columbia, to northern Baja California; on sand and in bays to 600 feet. shield limpet Annette’s cowry Alaska to Baja California; on rocks and kelpfast, intertidally. Pacific coast of Mexico; on rocks to 100 feet. Florida fighting conch North Carolina to Florida and Gulf Coast to Texas and Mexico; on sandy bottoms in shallow water. lewis’ moon snail Atlantic slipper shell On Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States and Canada; on rocks intertidally to 50 feet. gray Atlantic auger dama dwarf olive cone shell four-toothed nerite red abalone Pismo clam Common Name Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Near East China Eurasia Eurasia Near East Domesticated grape (Vitis vinifera) Domesticated peach (Prunus persica) Domesticated plum (Prunus domestica) Domesticated raspberry (Rubus idaeus) Domesticated wheat (Triticum spp.) southwestern United States Oaxaca, Mexico Maize (Zea mays) Mesquite wood (Prosopis) southern Arizona southern United States southwestern United States worldwide southern Europe Lemonade berry/fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica) Horse purslane (Trianthema portulacastrum) Ground cherry/tomatillo (Physalis) Grass family seeds (Poaceae, Paniceae) Goathead (Tribulus terrestris) subtropical northern hemisphere Near East Domesticated fig (Ficus carica) Elderberry (Sambucus) Near East Domesticated barley (Hordeum vulgare) western United States/East Asia Eurasia Domesticated apple (Malus domestica) Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga) Near East locally/worldwide Cottonwood/willow (Populus/Salix) Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) southern Mexico tropical Asia and Australia central Mexico Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) Chinaberry (Melia azedarach) Chili pepper (Capsicum annuum) southern United States/northern Mexico Oaxaca, Mexico Butternut/squash (Cucurbita moschata) Cheno-am seed (Chenopodium-Amaranthus) locally/worldwide Origin/Range Arizona cypress/juniper (Cupressus/Juniperus) Plant (Taxa) fuel, construction material food staple construction material weed food, medicinal native plant, food invasive weed food, medicinal construction material food staple food food food food food food staple food food construction material food staple ornamental food, medicine native plant, food food staple construction material Use Reference Bohrer 1962:99; Ebeling 1986; Yanovsky 1936:35–36 Benz 2001; Piperno and Flannery 2001 Adams 1988:458–472; Kearney and Peebles 1960:523 Rea 1997:247–246 Adams 1988:361–366 Doebley 1984 Kearney and Peebles 1960:491 Hodgson 2001:148–149 Constantine Jr. 2005:276 Dunmire 2004:219, 321 Bailey 1949:519–526 Dunmire 2004:220, 320 Dunmire 2004:220, 320 Dunmire 2004:221 Dunmire 2004:220 Dunmire 2004:219, 315 Dunmire 2004:220 Dunmire 2004:220 Adams 1988:405–416, 499–511 Kaplan 1994; Kaplan and Lynch 1999 Bailey 1949:612–613 Bailey 1949:873; Dunmire 2004 Adams 1988:170–189 Smith 1999 Constantine Jr. 2005:213 Table 6. Summary of Identified Plants from Joint Courts Complex Project Postcemetery Contexts Chapter 4 • Artifact Types Found in the Joint Courts Complex Postcemetery Component 55 56 western United States southern Arizona Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) Saguaro seed (Carnegiea gigantea) Wild pea (Fabaceae) Walnut wood (Juglans) temperate regions of northern hemisphere locally/worldwide southern, midwestern, and western United States Near East Pomegranate (Punica granatum) Tansy mustard (Descurainia) southern Arizona worldwide Origin/Range Oak nutshell and wood (Quercus) Oak (Quercus) Plant (Taxa) Constantine Jr. 2005:252; Kearney and Peebles 1960:214 Bean and Saubel 1972:44; Castetter 1935; Hough 1898; Stevenson 1915 food, medicinal Adams 1988:205–211 Bohrer 1987:94–95; Crosswhite 1980 Constantine Jr. 2005:196 Dunmire 2004:220, 320 Adams 1988:436–450 Constantine Jr. 2005:318 Reference construction material native plant, food landscaping, food construction material food food, furniture material, construction material construction and furniture material Use Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest C hapter  5 Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area R. Scott Plumlee and Shari L. Tiedens Miltenberg (East Council) Street Modern East Council Street ran east-west through the center of the project area. The street was established in November of 1881, when the city council decided to open a road “through the old cemetery to Toole street” (AWC, 13 November 1881:4). Though originally considered a continuation of Council Street, which already existed west of the project area, it was known as Miltenberg Street throughout much of its early history. The first known reference to the street by that name is on a map dated 1889 (Figure 19). Miltenberg Street was named for Tucson baker Frank Miltenberg. Little is known of Miltenberg’s early life, but he was credited with opening the first bakery in Tucson (ADS, 26 May 1927, 16 July 1933). The City Bakery probably opened around 1882 (TCD 1881, 1883) at 159 W. Congress Street, less than half a mile from the project area, and Miltenberg operated it until his death in 1913. Afterward, the bakery was operated by Frank’s widow, Margaret, until she sold the business to Perfection Baking Company, in 1927 (ADS, 26 May 1927; Arizona Historical Society [AHS] 1933b). Margaret had come to Arizona in 1875 with her first husband, the superintendent of the Silverbell mine. He died shortly afterward, and she married Frank Miltenberg and began teaching in Tucson, where her pupils included prominent Tucsonans, such as Mose Drachman (ADS, 16 July 1933). She later gave up her teaching career to take over her husband’s business. She died in 1933 at the age of 67. By 1909, residential structures had appeared along Miltenberg Street, and by 1922, a line of electric utility poles were in place along its north edge (Sanborn 1909, 1922). However, it remained a minor street and was probably not paved until commercialization of the area in the 1930s. Figure 20, taken ca. 1930, shows the Old Pueblo Bowling and Billiard Parlor that was located on the northeast corner of Stone Avenue and Miltenberg Street and includes a view of the paved Stone Avenue; it is not known if Miltenberg Street was paved at this time (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 53 and 55]). In 1954, Miltenberg Street was renamed East Council Street (TCD 1953, 1954). Note that the postcemetery maps depict the modern boundaries of all streets. Aside from utility trenches, which are discussed separately in this chapter, a number of postcemetery archaeological features were encountered within the Miltenberg Street right-of-way. Many of them appeared to be related to the line of electrical poles mentioned above, and they are discussed within the Utilities section of this chapter. Several other archaeological features encountered in Miltenberg Street probably represented landscaping pits for plants that lined the street or sidewalk during the residential period. These included three pits (Landscaping Features 29360, 30001, and 30002) in alignment along the northern edge of Block 254, Lot 5 (Figure 21). Measuring between 50 and 60 inches in diameter and between 12 and 20 inches deep, they were spaced around 61/2 feet apart. All three pits were bisected and excavated in two sections. Two strata were identified in each: ashy loamy fine sand with refuse on top of nonashy fill with caliche inclusions and few artifacts. The western tree pit (Landscaping Feature 29360) was intruded on its northern edge by a trench (Feature 17613) and intruded a grave (Grave Pit 27152) with its northwest corner. Additionally, the feature was impacted along its southern edge, possibly by the uprooting of the plant that occupied it. The central pit (Landscaping Feature 30001) was intruded on its northern edge by Trench Feature 17613. The easternmost tree pit (Landscaping Feature 30002) was intruded on its northern edge by Trench Feature 17613 and was abutted by a square posthole (Feature 30003). Several features represented other evidence of road maintenance and improvement. One pit (Feature 555) was positioned close to the northern border of Block 254, Lot 4, and likely represented a landscaping feature. Pits 27627 and 27629 (which intruded into Grave Pit 10167), were positioned near the southeastern corner of Block 252, Lot 7, and may also have indicated the positions of landscaping features. A line of 57 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest postholes (Postholes 7738–42, 7758, 7793–95, 7781, 7789, 13676–78, 10157, and 12951–12954) was identified along the northern edge of Miltenberg Street, between Stone Avenue and the Block 254 alley. These features probably represented the remains of a wooden curb delineating a barrier between the street and the residential-period lot, prior to the paving of the street and the establishment of cement sidewalks. A similar curb can be seen along Stone Avenue in Figure 22. The functions of three additional features (Pits 13923, 7766, and 31812) remain unknown. Grossetta Avenue Grossetta Avenue ran north-south through the eastern half of the project area. The street and its associated features can be viewed in Figure 21, which depicts its modern boundaries. It is not known exactly when this street was opened, though it was probably around the same time as Miltenberg Street. It was not present in 1880 (see Chapter 4, Volume 2) but appeared on the 1889 survey of Tucson by John Gardiner (see Figure 19). It also appears on an official 1890 map of Block 254 (see Chapter 4, Volume 2). By 1909, eight small residential structures had been built along Grossetta Avenue (Sanborn 1909). The street probably was not paved until the commercialization of the area in the 1930s (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 53, and 55]). The street was named for Anthony Vincent “A. V.” Grossetta, a prominent businessman and local politician in turn-of-the-twentieth-century Tucson. Grossetta was born in 1856, the son of a shoe merchant, in Dubrovnik, Croatia. At the age of 12, he ran away from home, shipped aboard a sailing craft, and spent the next 6 years at sea (Chapman Publishing Company 1901; Eterovich n.d.). In 1874, Grossetta jumped ship along the East Coast and took jobs with employers as varied as the New York Central Railroad and the Italian Consulate in Montreal. Eventually, he moved west to California, where he was naturalized in 1880 (Henry 1995). He eventually relocated to Tucson, reportedly because of the large community of Slavic residents in Arizona at the time (Henry 1995). Grossetta started out in his new town waiting tables and sleeping under the counter of the shop (Henry 1995). In 1882, he started the Tucson Grocery Company with project area property owner Gustav Hoff (AHS n.d. u). The two operated a small store near the railroad station until 1893 (Eterovich n.d.), when the store expanded to a new location. By 1901, it was one of the largest wholesale and retail grocery firms in the territory (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). In 1898, Grossetta was involved in the opening of the Tucson Hardware Company (Henry 1995). He was involved in a number of other ventures, including a peach farm (Eterovich n.d.), the Tucson Building and Loan Association, and the Tucson Electric Light and Power Company, of which he was an officer (Chapman Publishing Company 1901; Finney 1962). He was also an influential member of the Board of Trade and, like most of the successful businessmen in Tucson, held membership in several fraternal organizations, such as the Masons, the Knights Templar, the Shriners, and the Eastern Star (Chapman Publishing Company 1901; Eterovich n.d.). In 1907, Grossetta’s wife, Bessie, died at the age of 46 (AS, 31 March 1907; Tucson Citizen [TC], 30 March 1907). He had married her in 1884, and the two had one son, Warren (Henry 1995). Grossetta lived until 1924, after marrying his second wife, Frances, with whom he had two children (ADS, 14 August 1956). In addition to his many commercial interests, he was also an avid musician, and he organized a brass band in Tucson. Later he started Club Filarmónico Tucsonense with Fred Rondstadt and gave free weekly concerts. Grossetta patronized the arts, opening the Tucson Opera House in 1897. Politically, he was a Republican and served with the 24th Territorial Legislature (Henry 1995), the county central committee, and the Territorial Party Convention (Eterovich n.d.). He was a member of the city council when the project area cemetery was condemned and opened to development (Chapman Publishing Company 1901), possibly accounting for the use of his name on one of the project area streets. Because Grossetta Avenue was included within the boundaries of the project area, we excavated its entire length, from Toole Avenue to Alameda Street. Aside from utility trenches, which are discussed separately in this chapter, several archaeological features were encountered during these excavations. Most of these were associated with the utility trenches. A manhole (Feature 28311), which provided access to a sewer line (see Figure 21), was identified at the intersection with Miltenberg Street. A large pit (Feature 31169), excavated in the center of Grossetta Avenue, south of its intersection with Miltenberg Street, contained several utilityrelated features, including a concrete vault (Feature 10675), a steel pipe within the vault (Feature 10676), a manhole cover with associated cables (Feature 10678), and a second manhole cover (Feature 10679). The 58 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area vault (Feature 10675) and its associated manhole cover (Feature 10679) were installed by the Tucson Gas and Electric Power Company, which operated under that name between 1896 and 1979 (Tucson Electric Power Company 2008). Finally, there were two features (Pit 647 and Posthole 658) in alignment with the western edge of Grossetta Avenue, north of Miltenberg Street, that may have been related to electric or telephone utility poles. In addition to utility features, excavators also encountered a linear alignment of 23 postholes (Fea­ tures 31168, 31170, 31524, 31501–31503, 30499, 30500, 31022–31025, 30994–30998, and 30987–30992) along the eastern edge of Grossetta Avenue, between Miltenberg Street and the southern edge of the project area. These were probably associated with a wooden curb that separated the early residential-period lots from the street, before the street was paved. An example of such a curb can be seen along North Stone Avenue in Figure 22. Stone Avenue Stone Avenue runs generally north-south, bordering the western edge of the project area. It is not known exactly when the street was opened, but John F. Stone, for whom it was named, is reported to have built the first house along what is now South Stone Avenue in the early 1860s, at the southwestern corner of its intersection with McCormick Street. Stone arrived in New Mexico as an Adjutant General during the Civil War, resigning after the defeat of Texas forces at the battle of Apache Canyon. He opened the Union Hotel in Albuquerque with a partner and operated it until some time after 1863, when he relocated to Tucson. An undated article in the Tucson Post described Stone as “a man of considerable means and of magnificent physique” (McClintock 1916a). The same article recorded that he had recently built a reduction mill over a gold vein in Apache Pass only to be “killed by Indians” in Dragoon Pass while heading back to Tucson with the proceeds of the first month’s run. Stone Avenue south of the project area and along the southern end of its western border runs slightly off a true north-south line and probably predates the northern section that abuts the project area. Stone Avenue did not exist at all in 1862, when the eastern edge of town ended well west of the street’s current location (Fergusson 1862). Stone Avenue was, however, present on an 1870 map (Bufkin 1870). On this map, and the one that followed (see Chapter 4, Volume 2), Stone Avenue north of Alameda Street was aligned with the regularized street grid of Tucson and was therefore oriented on a true north-south axis. It has been hypothesized that the establishment of this section of Stone Avenue provided a visual reference for the orientation of burials and may be used to date graves based on their adherence to a true east-west axis; however, there may be complicating factors, as discussed in Chapter 4 of Volume 2. By 1890, the section of North Stone Avenue between Miltenberg and Alameda Streets had been realigned with the angled section of Stone Avenue south of the project area (Figure 23). Note that the postcemetery feature maps depict the modern boundary of the street. Various improvements and modifications were undertaken in the street’s twentieth-century history. In 1903, a gas main was installed at the intersection of North Stone Avenue and Miltenberg Street and disturbed human remains associated with the cemetery; the discovery nearly caused a strike among the workers (TC, 19 February 1903:5). In 1907, a sidewalk that had been previously constructed along Stone Avenue between Pennington Street and Broadway Boulevard in 1899 was extended northward for the remaining length of Stone Avenue, including that portion abutting the project area (City of Tucson 1910). A wooden-curb feature encountered archaeologically along the eastern side of the street probably predates the paved sidewalk. The curb was almost certainly removed prior to 1910, when this section of North Stone Avenue was first paved (City of Tucson 1910). Many of the archaeological features found in North Stone Avenue were related in some way to municipal utilities and are discussed separately in this chapter. However, several trench segments could not be assigned a known function, including one (Trench 13846) in front of Block 252, Lot 6 (Figure 24), and a second (Trench 17729) at the intersection with Miltenberg Street. In addition, several feature groupings represented improvements along the east side of Stone Avenue. An alignment of small pits in front of Block 254, Lot 2 (208 N. Stone Avenue), indicated the presence of a wooden curb (Pits 20638–41, 20646, and 17801–02). Similar curbing (see Wooden Curb 707, below) in front of Block 252, Lots 4 and 5 (Figure 25), can be seen in a photograph of the Steward house at 286 N. Stone Avenue (see Figure 22). As discussed above, these features most likely dated to the early residential period of 59 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest the project area. Landscaping features found in a north-south linear alignment east of the curb (Features 17800, 20626–29, and 20635–36) probably represented tree pits. Trees in this alignment can be seen Figure 17 shading the front of the Tucson Newspapers building on Block 254, Lot 2. Finally, several archaeological features were encountered in Stone Avenue for which function remains unknown. These included three postholes (Features 20643, 20644, and 20645) in a north-south alignment in front of Block 254, Lot 2, between the landscaping features and the postholes for the curb. These features may have represented supports for a sidewalk. Additionally, a square posthole (Feature 20526) and a pit (Feature 17803) were both found beneath Drain 17631, and a large, rectangular pit (Feature 375) was identified on the west edge of Block 252, Lot 3 (Figure 26). Wooden Curb 707 An alignment of nine square, wooden posts (Feature 707) (see Figure 25) approximately 77 feet long was discovered during mechanical stripping. The feature grouping probably represented the remains of a wooden curb that lined Stone Avenue in front of Lots 4 and 5 of Block 252. Each post measured approximately 8 by 8 inches square, and the posts were aligned north-south along the eastern edge of Stone Avenue. They were placed in concrete, approximately 6 feet apart, but the postholes were excavated into Natural Stratum I. One of the posts intruded on Grave Pit 689 but did not disturb the burial. Toole Avenue Toole Avenue runs northwest-southeast along the northernmost edge of the project area but was not explored archaeologically during this investigation. It does not appear on an 1872 map of the city (see Chapter 4, Volume 2) but does appear on a map dated to 1880, paralleling the Southern Pacific Railroad tracks (see Chapter 4, Volume 2). It was probably built when the railroad was first cut through the original cemetery plot in 1880. Though graded and maintained, it remained largely unchanged until the early 1920s, when it was paved through the efforts of Mayor Charles Rasmessen (ADS, 15 August 1929; TC, 7 July 1930). The street was named for James Henry Toole, who was the mayor of Tucson considered most responsible for bringing the railroad to town (Devine 2004). Toole was born in New York in 1828 and, as a young man, moved west during the California Gold Rush (ADS, 17 October 1884:4; AHS n.d. x, n.d. z). During the Civil War, he enlisted in the 5th California Infantry but was detached and assigned to the quartermaster department under Colonel Carlton. He came to Arizona with the California Column in 1862 and was appointed to the position of camp sutler (AHS n.d. x, n.d. z). After the war, he returned to Tucson (AHS n.d. x), where he engaged actively in mining and real-estate development, including the construction of a large number of commercial properties (AC, 17 February 1872:3, 10 April 1875:3, 29 May 1875:3, 22 August 1874:3, 4 December 1875:3; ADC, 15 August 1882:3; ADS, 13 December 1882:4; AHS n.d. z; WA, 22 May 1869:3). In 1873, he married Louisa M. Dexter, a woman 30 years his junior (AHS n.d. z; AWC, 26 April 1873:2). The same year, he was elected Tucson’s second mayor (AHS n.d. x). He served two consecutive 1-year terms, during which time he reportedly pulled the city treasury out of “several thousand dollars” of debt and left it with a surplus (AC, 2 January 1875:3). He was by all accounts a popular mayor, winning his second election 100 to 1 (AC, 10 January 1874:3). He did not run for a third term in 1875 (AC, 2 January 1875:3) and lost to Charles Meyers when he ran again in 1876 (AC, 8 January 1876:3). His next election proved successful, however, and Toole went on to serve another two consecutive 1-year terms as Tucson’s fifth mayor (AHS n.d. x). During this time, he helped to secure the title for the Southern Pacific Railroad right-of-way (ADS, 24 July 1879:3) and oversaw the arrival of the railroad in Tucson. This undoubtedly contributed to his continued popularity (AC, 30 May 1879:1). He declined to run again in 1881, choosing instead to focus on his business pursuits (AWS, 8 December 1881:1). These included the Hudson & Company Bank, which Toole had helped form and which would soon become southern Arizona’s largest financial firm (Santiago 2002). Unfortunately, Toole’s involvement with this firm proved to be his downfall. As a result of questionable loan and overdraft policies on the part of Charles Hudson, Hudson & Company declared bankruptcy in May of 1884, closing all of its branches and causing one of the biggest economic crises of its time in southern Arizona (Santiago 2002). Both Toole and Hudson 60 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area were required to hand over all personal assets, as well as those related to the bank, for the benefit of creditors (ADS, 10 May 1884:1, 14 May 1884:4). Whereas Hudson had previously transferred most of his estate into other names and therefore was mostly protected by the action, Toole had made no such maneuver and was financially ruined, with losses estimated at around $75,000 (Santiago 2002; Weekly Phoenix Herald [WPH] 15 May 1884:2). In the end, his lawyer was able to secure the house his family was living in as a homestead, but everything else he had owned was lost (AHS n.d. y; Santiago 2002). Toole reportedly became a psychological wreck, feeling that he had betrayed friends, associates, and the City of Tucson (Santiago 2002). He promptly resigned from his post as treasurer of the Arizona Pioneer’s Society when all of the organization’s money was lost in the bank failure and vowed to return every dollar (ADS, 2 June 1884:4). He was noticeably “agitated” during newspaper interviews of the time (ADS, 10 May 1884:1). Finally, in October 1884, he was convinced to travel to Wisconsin to revive his mental health; his pregnant wife and four children had already made the trip (Santiago 2002). In his train coach at the depot in Trinidad, Colorado, he shot himself and died (ADS, 17 October 1884:4; Arizona Weekly Enterprise, 18 October 1884:3). In subsequent investigations, Toole was largely exonerated of wrongdoing, and Hudson was found to have been responsible for actions leading to the bank’s failure (ADS, 22 June 1884:1, 17 October 1884:4). Hudson, who quickly moved from Tucson following the incident, was found by Toole’s lawyer to have had a history of such behavior (Santiago 2002). He was afterward generally blamed for Toole’s death by Tucsonans (ADC, 28 January 1886:4; WPH, 23 October 1884:1). Until the collapse of his bank, James Toole had been considered “the most influential man in southern Arizona” (ADS, 17 October 1884:4). Though it is not known whether Toole Avenue had been named by James Toole or his political successors, the street name was still popularly valued 26 years after his death (ADS, 29 December 1910). Alameda Street Alameda Street runs east-west along the southern border of the project area, as can be viewed in Figure 27. This map depicts the street’s modern northern boundary. Historically, the section of the street that exists west of the project area appeared on an 1862 survey map of Tucson. It was called Calle de la Guardia and ran through the northern part of Tucson as it existed at the time, dividing La Plaza Militar to the north from La Plaza de las Armas to the south (Fergusson 1862). On the same map, a curving extension of the road west of Main Street, or Calle Real, was named Calle de las Milpas. Both sections likely date to before the Gadsden Purchase. However, as the eastern edge of Tucson effectively ended west of modern-day Church Avenue in 1862, it is unclear whether the cemetery or the eastern extension of present-day Alameda Street had been developed at that time. The section of the street that borders the project area does appear on 1870 and 1872 maps of the city, where it was called Cemetery Street east of Main Street and Alameda Street to the west (Bufkin 1870) (see Chapter 4, Volume 2). Alameda is a Spanish word meaning “avenue shaded by trees,” “cottonwood grove,” or “place where cottonwoods grow.” It is a derivation of the word alamo, meaning cottonwood (Barnes 1988:13; Cobos 1983:7; Sanchez 1930:149–150, 244), and is a common street name in towns of the southwestern United States (Hanna 1946:4; Julyan 1998:6–7; Pearce 1965:4; Sanchez 1930:149–150). The east-west section of Alameda Street that borders the project area was probably opened when the cemetery was established. Its eastern extension continued to be called Cemetery Street as late as 1880 (see Chapter 4, Volume 2), but by 1889, the entire street had been renamed Alameda Street (see Figure 19). It has served as one of Tucson’s major downtown thoroughfares since that time and has functioned as a conduit for utility pipes, such as the sewer main that was installed there in February of 1902 (ADS, 7 February 1902:8; TC, 7 February 1902:8). In 1907, a sidewalk was installed along Alameda Street between Stone and Toole Avenues (City of Tucson 1910). In 1909, the street was widened between Toole Avenue and Main Street, and wooden curbing was installed west of Main Street (City of Tucson 1910). Like Toole Avenue, Alameda Street remained unpaved until the early 1920s, when Mayor Charles Rasmessen launched a campaign to pave all city streets (ADS, 15 August 1929; TC, 7 July 1930). Alameda Street was outside the project area, but excavations did take place beneath its northern sidewalk. Several postcemetery features were encountered, but each was found to be associated with the adjacent lots, and these are described in Chapter 16. 61 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Block 254, Alley An alley ran north-south through the middle of Block 254, dividing Lots 1–3 from Lots 4–7. The alley was first constructed in 1890, when the block was sold by the Tucson School District and subdivided for housing (O’Quinn Title and Abstract Company n.d.). A map dated 1889 shows that Block 254 remained undivided at that time (see Figure 19), but an 1890 map shows the block divided into lots and the alley (see Figure 23). In 1903, the alley was used for the installation of a private sewer that connected to the main line in Alameda Street; during the installation, three sets of human remains from the cemetery were discovered (TC, 4 March 1903:5). This is probably the pipeline represented by Trench 629, from which branched a sewer connection for the residences at 46 and 48 Grossetta Avenue and 59 Miltenberg Street, on Block 254, Lot 5. Aside from utility trenches (discussed below), several other archaeological features were identified during the alley excavations (Figure 28). Four postholes ran in a north-south alignment east of the trenches and probably represented the placement of poles for electric or telephone services. One (Posthole 10219) was located near the north end of the alley. Another (see Posthole 10446) was near the northwest corner of Building B—the commercial structure on Lots 6 and 7 (Foundation 625)—and intruded the coffin of a historically removed burial (Grave Pit 10188). Posthole 26800 was found near the south end of the alley and intruded the coffin of a highly disturbed grave pit (Grave Pit 26796) that may have been previously removed. Finally, Posthole 26798 was also located at the south end of the alley and intruded the coffin of a historically removed burial (Grave Pit 26790). In addition to the utility-related features, two pits were encountered in the Block 254 alley. Pit 10192 was found near the juncture of Lots 4 and 6, east of the utility trenches. Pit Feature 606 was located at the south end of the alley. Posthole 10446 Posthole 10446 was identified during mechanical stripping. The feature measured about 2 feet in diameter, 24 by 28 inches in plan view, and was 27 inches deep. It was located along the eastern edge of the alley and was likely a posthole for a utility pole. It intruded the coffin of a historically removed burial (Grave Pit 10188) along that feature’s south-central edge. It was in turn intruded by Posthole 10376 and by Foundation 625 (Building B). The fill was yellowish-brown silty loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II; no cultural material was present. Posthole 26798 A pit (Posthole 26798) identified during mechanical stripping measured approximately 20 inches in diameter and was 14 inches deep. It was located in the alley near the southwestern corner of Lot 6 and may have been a posthole for a utility pole. The feature intruded the coffin at the northern edge of Grave Pit 26790, which contained a historically removed burial. The posthole continued below the floor of the grave, but once it was determined that the grave did not contain a burial, excavation of the posthole was discontinued. The fill was yellowish-brown silty loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was excavated as a single unit. The fill contained an asphalt center, approximately 121/2 inches in diameter. No human remains were recovered, either from the grave-pit feature or the posthole, and no other artifacts were present. Posthole 26800 A posthole (Feature 26800) was identified during mechanical stripping. It measured about 18 inches in diameter and was 25 inches deep. It was located in the alley west of the residential structure on Lot 6 (Building T) and may have represented the location of a utility pole. The feature intruded the coffin at the eastern end of a highly disturbed grave pit (Grave Pit 26796). The fill varied from large gravels to fine sand, with a surrounding matrix of the compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II, as well as the fill of Grave Pit 26796. 62 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area The following sections describe the utility features encountered during excavation, most of which can be seen on the postcemetery maps for streets and utilities (Figure 29; see Figures 21 and 28). Some are discussed along with the lots on which they were found and can be seen on the appropriate postcemetery feature map, but the majority of these features consisted of trenches that spanned multiple lots and ran throughout the project area, connecting with the larger utility systems of the city of Tucson. Therefore, they are dealt with here, grouped together by their associated function. Below, the features are described as they were encountered during fieldwork. Their connection with the larger system of Tucson and the development of that system through time are discussed, along with other influences on land use, in Chapter 12 of Volume 1. These features often intruded large numbers of graves, which are not listed exhaustively here. For those graves disturbed by utility trenches, see the descriptions for grave-pit features contained in Volume 4 of this report. Electrical Utility Features Several features encountered during excavation were interpreted as related to the early electrical-distribution system. These interpretations were made despite the fact that electrical utilities were not always represented by subterranean trenching as were other utilities (i.e., gas, water, and sewer) in the project area. Along the east side of Stone Avenue, three pit features were found in locations that approximated the placement of utility poles recorded on the 1922 Sanborn map. The northernmost of the Sanborn poles was in close proximity to a pit (Feature 375) encountered near Block 252, Lot 3. The central pole may have been represented by the remains of a utility posthole (Feature 17628) located near the northern edge of Council Street and containing the remains of an 18-inch-diameter post (Feature 20525). The pit measured about 3 feet square and was 30 inches deep. The fill was a sandy silty loam that was stained black around the post. This feature was associated with a 24-inch-deep, north-south-oriented guywire-anchor pit (Feature 17623) measuring 48 inches by 20 inches; the pit contained some gravels but little to no cultural material, and it intruded a grave shaft (Grave Pit 17624) without disturbing the associated burial. The southernmost of the Sanborn poles corresponded with the location of a feature located near Block 254, Lot 1 (Posthole 17587/17588). It measured 36 by 19 inches and was approximately 39 inches deep. It intruded into the center of a prehistoric pit house (Feature 19021), near where the pit house was truncated by North Stone Avenue (see Chapter 3, Volume 1). The fill consisted of silty loam in a surrounding matrix of both fill from Feature 19021 and compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Artifacts recovered from the feature included metal, glass, asphalt, and rebar. Post-1922 modifications of the Stone Avenue utility line may have been represented by several features. Two of these features (Posthole 20634 and Pit 17803) were located along the southern section of Stone Avenue. Two others (Postholes 379 and 380) were located along the northern stretch of Stone Avenue, on the property at 286 N. Stone Avenue. Their location corresponded with an electrical pole observed in a mid1930s photograph of the project area (see Appendix B [Photo Index No. 55]) and suggested a utility pole and its later replacement. Though several large pit features encountered in Council Street may have been related to the historical electrical line along that street, none corresponded to poles noted on the 1922 Sanborn map. A north-southoriented pit (Feature 20988) containing horizontally oriented, in situ milled wood was located at the northeast corner of the intersection of Stone Avenue and Miltenberg Street. A north-south-oriented subrectangular pit (Feature 20988) was encountered at the northeast corner of the Stone Avenue/Miltenberg Street intersection. It measured 20 inches by 41 inches and was 12 inches deep. The feature was bisected, and each section was excavated in a single level. The fill was brown silty fine sand with caliche inclusions; the surrounding matrix was Natural Stratum II. Another feature (Pit 7832), positioned along the northern edge of Miltenberg Street, near Lot 11 of Block 252, may also have represented an electrical utility pole. In the other streets, several possible utility features were also identified. Some corresponded to poles noted on the 1922 Sanborn map, such as a large posthole (Feature 10998) found near Block 252, Lot 8, along Toole Avenue. Likewise, farther south along the same street, two adjacent pits (Features 31783 and 31784) were in approximately the same location as what appears to have been a double-pole utility feature. Many other features were not recorded on the 1922 Sanborn map but could have been later modifications or 63 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest additions. In the Block 254 alley, there were several postholes (Features 10219, 10446, 26800, and 26798) in a north-south alignment east of the utility trenches that may have represented a line of utility poles, though not one recorded by 1922. Two features at the edge of Grossetta Avenue (Pit 647 and Posthole 658) were also not recorded on the Sanborn map. In modern times, prior to excavation, utility poles ran along the southern sides of Council Street and Toole Avenue. Two conduit trenches belonging to the Tucson Electric Power Company, used to power street lights, ran along the north side of Council Street (Trench 7783), the east side of Stone Avenue (Trench 13842), and the alley in Block 254 (Trench 10223). The Stone Avenue trench was only encountered in one short section, where it intruded the grave shaft of an infant burial (Grave Pit 13841) but did not disturb the remains. Additionally, two large concrete conduits served as underground transmission lines and ran under the south side of Council Street (Trench 17613) and beneath the alley (Trench 630). Street lights are currently located along the eastern edge of Stone Avenue. Fiber-Optic-Cable Features A number of features found in the project area were fiber-optic utility lines installed in recent years. Among these was Feature 10234, which was the northern extension of a directionally drilled line belonging to Cox Cable (Feature 5327, running north-south beneath the alley). The installation of this line resulted in the last burial removal from the cemetery prior to the start of the Joint Courts Complex project. The removal (see Chapter 15, Pit 30600, and Volume 4, Grave Pit 28339) was conducted by Tierra Right-of-Way in 2001 (Zaglauer and Doak 2003). Another fiber-optic-cable trench (Feature 31625) ran east-west under Council Street, between Grossetta Avenue and Toole Avenue. Finally, two fiber-optic lines ran north-south beneath Grossetta Avenue, each covered by a concrete cap. The first (Features 5322 and 30984) ran under the east side of the street, and the second (Features 5323 and 31096) ran under the west side of the street. Neither line was removed, and both remain in place as part of a nationwide system belonging to AT&T. Natural-Gas Utility Features The natural-gas utility system serving the project area consisted of three main pipelines. An east-west main (Feature 7732) ran beneath Council Street and connected to two north-south mains. One of these (Feature 628) ran under the alley, between Council Street and Alameda Street, and the other (Feature 30982) ran beneath Grossetta Avenue. Several subsidiary pipelines were identified as branching off these mains and were subsequently traced to specific lots or buildings. Several features were identified as branches of the east-west main (Feature 7732). One (Feature 7869) branched to the north and connected with Building J, the commercial structure at 240–250 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 10) depicted on Sanborn maps after 1930. Another (Feature 13650) branched south, connecting with Building I at 220 N. Stone Avenue, the basement of Tucson Newspapers, Inc. (see Chapter 13). This gas line may have first been connected to a previous structure at this location. A third branch (Feature 10319) led to the south and was aligned with another trench (Feature 553), which in turn probably connected to the residential structure at 55 Miltenberg Street (see Chapter 15, Building Y). A fourth branch (Feature 27867) led south and was aligned with Trench 565, which connected with the gas station located at 55 E. Council Street starting in 1953 (see Chapter 15; Building A). The two north-south mains had fewer identified branches. The one in Grossetta Street (Feature 30982) branched east along the north edge of the residence at the corner of Council (Miltenberg) Street and Grossetta Avenue (see Chapter 17, Building V). From the main in the alley (Feature 628), a short trench section (Feature 3376) branched off and led to the east. Though it did not connect with any extant archaeological feature, it appeared to be associated with a storage structure identified on Sanborn maps at 461/2 Grossetta Street from 1904 to 1930 (see Chapter 15). Several other gas pipelines were identified during excavations (Features 524, 4765, 7730, 13913, 13914, 28310, 31170, and 31705). However, these had a more ambiguous relationship with the larger system, and no firm associations suggested themselves. 64 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area Sewer Utility Features The sewer system was by far the most complex utility system identified within the project area. Like most of the other trench systems, the main trunks for the sewer utilities were located under Council (Miltenberg) Street and Grossetta Avenue. In Council Street, the sewer main was represented by both a west-flowing trench (Feature 7731), which ran toward Stone Avenue, and an east-flowing trench (Feature 10159), which ran toward Toole Avenue. The sewer lines in Grossetta Avenue included Blue Stake Feature 4912 (not mapped) and, near the southern end of Grossetta Avenue, Trench 30998. Prior to the installation of the sewer system in Tucson, many homes had indoor water closets that were connected to old privy pits or to cesspits by a pipeline. One of these (Trench 108) connected the residence at 48 E. Alameda Street (Building U) with Cesspit 3040 (see Chapter 16). Similarly, Trench 183 appeared to connect Cesspit 3042 with the residence at 36 E. Alameda Street (Building T), next door. This latter cesspit system was probably replaced by Trenches 217 and 31261 when the house was connected to the public sewer following the installation of a main along Alameda Street in 1902 (City of Tucson 1910). The residences at 270 and 286 N. Stone Avenue, by comparison, appeared to have been connected to the same cesspit (Feature 10099), because two sewer lines terminated at this feature. The first (Trench 10097) ran southwest toward 270 N. Stone Avenue (Building G), and the second (Trench 10098) ran northwest toward 286 N. Stone Avenue (Building H). A third trench (Feature 10096) also seemed to be related to this system, connecting the cesspit trenches to a water trench on Lot 4 (Feature 10538). In contrast, the residential building at 250 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 10), largely destroyed by later construction, was associated with three cesspit features located on the lot (Features 7893, 7958, and 7897). Oddly, two of these cesspits were linked by a pipe (Trench 7959). One of the first parts of the sewer system to be constructed within the project area was represented by several trench sections in Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 (Features 629, 593, 747, 748, 749, and 751; see Chapter 15). Trench 629 ran north from the sewer main in Alameda Street through the alley dividing Block 254. Trench 593 ran east from Trench 629 through Lot 4 and into Lot 5, paralleling Council (Miltenberg) Street for approximately 70 feet. This feature was then divided within a pit (Feature 747) into three residential lines on Lot 5: Trench 748 ran southeast to the house at 46 Grossetta Avenue (Building Z), Trench 751 ran northeast to the house at 48 Grossetta Avenue (Building P), and Trench 749 ran northeast to the residence at 59 Miltenberg Street (no building number). These buildings were all constructed after 1904 (Sanborn 1904, 1909) and were some of the first structures built in the project area following the installation of Tucson’s first sewer mains in the early 1900s (City of Tucson 1900, 1910). In Grossetta Avenue, multiple sewer-trench sections branched both west and east from the main line. The southernmost branch (Feature 5134) ran east and possibly connected to the residence at 45 Grossetta Avenue (see Chapter 18, Building E). One small trench (Feature 5135) branched off this feature near the eastern edge of Grossetta Avenue and ran northwest. Further north, a sewer line (Trench 5173) was found that may have connected to the home at 49 Grossetta Avenue (see Chapter 17, Building V). A branch off this line (Trench 737) ran south and may have connected to 47 Grossetta Avenue (Building F) on the same lot. The northernmost sewer line that branched off Grossetta Avenue was by far the largest in the project area. This portion of the sewer system may have represented one of the oldest and most frequently rebuilt sewer lines on the site. It ran west from Grossetta Avenue (Feature 644/656) into Lot 13 of Block 252 and terminated on Lot 7 of the same block. From this primary branch ran several other lines, which will now be listed east to west. The easternmost (Trench 645) ran south in Lot 13 toward the residence at the corner of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue (see Chapter 11, Building C). Trench 657 ran northwest toward the residence at 78 Grossetta Avenue (see Chapter 11, Building D). Trench 644 then separated from Trench 656 and continued northwest, where it connected to a late-dating concrete slab with a drain in the center (see Chapter 11, Building S). Aside from these branches on Lot 13, there was a small cluster of intersecting trenches that were identified as sewer related but whose relationship to this east-west pipeline, or the surrounding structures, could not be determined (Features 646, 651, 652, and 659). Three more branches ran south from the east-west line (Trench 656) as it continued west from Lot 13 into Lots 12 and 11 (Features 5442, 5443, and 656). These features had further small branches at their southern ends that correlated with the placement of buildings belonging to the Brewster Apartments complex (Sanborn 1930, 1947). Toward the western end of the property on which the Brewster Apartments were located (Lot 11) was a four-way sewer junction with short east- and south-jutting spurs (Feature 656). The western extension of the east-west line, which started at this junction, continued west, probably connecting to either the 65 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest residence at 250 N. Stone Avenue (Sanborn 1901–1919) or the commercial building at 240 N. Stone Avenue (Sanborn 1930–1960). For more information on either structure, see Chapter 10. The west-flowing sewer main in Council (Miltenberg) Street (Feature 7731) had four branches identified during excavation. The first (Feature 7761) ran north under the commercial structure at 240 N. Stone Avenue and continued (Feature 7889) beneath the adjacent building at 250 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 10, Building J). Two spurs ran west from this branch under the northern building. The second and third branches (Features 13638 and 13598) ran north from Council Street toward the southeast corner of the residence at 250 N. Stone Avenue (Building Q), which preceded the commercial building at that location (Sanborn 1901, 1919). The fourth branch ran north, beneath the east end of Building J, where it most likely connected to another trench (Feature 13632). This second trench was probably related to a grease pit or other automobileservicing feature (Feature 13631) associated with Bowyer Motors at 240 N. Stone Avenue. The east-flowing sewer main in Council (Miltenberg) Street (Feature 10159) also had several branches. One (Feature 13633) was associated with the grease pit mentioned above. This branch ran north to Building J, where it abutted the grease-pit foundation (Feature 13631). One other trench (Feature 31260) branched south but was only encountered within Council Street. Given its position, it is likely that this branch serviced Durazzo’s Union 76 service station (see Chapter 15, Building A). One of the last sewer lines installed in the project area (Feature 574) ran next to one of the first (Feature 593), through the center of Block 254, Lot 4. Like the earlier line, the later one connected to the sewer main in the Block 254 alley (Feature 629), which ran north from Alameda Street. It probably served Durazzo’s service station (see Chapter 15, Building A), as did its subsidiary branch (Feature 573). One other isolated trench section (Feature 3377) in the project area was identified as a sewer. It was a north-south-running section in the southwest corner of Block 254, Lot 4, that crossed an east-west branch (Trench 3376) from the sewer main in the Block 254 alley (Trench 629) and paralleled the alley main. Unfortunately, no further association could be determined. A drain constructed by the Works Progress Administration (Feature 17631) was encountered at the intersection of Stone Avenue and Council Street (see Figure 28). Constructed of concrete, the drain was marked with the logo of the Depression-era Works Progress Administration (Figure 30). The meter cover was manufactured locally by Albert Steinfeld & Company, a department store whose hardware division operated on the northwest corner of Stone Avenue and Pennington Street between 1906 and 1950 (Henry 1995). The main store began as Zeckendorf’s, which expanded out of Santa Fe in 1867 and was taken over by Albert Steinfeld in 1906. The store was a steady employer of people living on the project area between 1910 and 1953 (TCD 1910, 1912–1914, 1917–1942, 1944, 1946, 1948–1953). The drain was visible prior to our investigation and ran parallel to North Stone Avenue, forming an integral part of the modern sidewalk and curb. The drainage box ran north-south under the asphalt of Council (Miltenberg) Street, between the northeast and southeast corners of the intersection. It measured approximately 97 by 7 feet and was between 18 and 24 inches in depth. A separate limb of the drain branched off the main body, on the south side of Council (Miltenberg) Street, and extended another 151/2 feet east. The drain intruded on multiple other features, most of them graves. It impacted the upper fill on the western ends of Grave Pits 17616, 17618, 17620, 17622, 17874, 20527, and 20555 and was completely superimposed over Grave Pits 17730, 17731, 17780, and 17793. None of the burials associated with these graves were impacted by this disturbance. Drain 17631 was superimposed over several postcemetery features, including postholes (Features 17628, 20525 and 20526), a trench (Feature 17729), and a pit (17803), and intruded into Basement 10235 of the Tucson Newspapers building (Building I). Water Utility Features The water system within the project area consisted of an east-west main (Feature 7729) that ran beneath Council (Miltenberg) Street and a north-south main represented by a section of trench at the southern end of Grossetta Avenue (Feature 31097). Of these two water mains, only the north-south line had an identified branch servicing a known property. The branch occurred near the northern end of Grossetta Avenue and connected to the east side of the commercial building at 240–250 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 10, Building J). This line (Feature 7562) also passed through the Brewster Apartments complex (see Chapter 11), constructed in 1924, and paralleled its primary sewer connection. There were also four service lines entering the project area from Stone Avenue. One (Feature 13846) probably connected to the west side of the commercial building at 250 N. Stone Avenue, and two others 66 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area (Features 20625 and 20633) probably connected to the Tucson Newspapers building at 208 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 14). The fourth trench (Feature 706) connected to either Building N (see Chapter 9) or Building O (see Chapters 8 and 9) or to both, as Building O—the Baum and Adamson conglomerate—eventually enveloped Building N, one of Bowyer Motors’ subsidiary repair facilities. Two more water trenches were located underneath the footprint of 46 E. Alameda Street, recorded on Sanborn maps beginning in 1947 (see Chapter 16, Building B). One of the trenches (Feature 99) connected to Alameda Street, and the other (Feature 97) connected either to Trench 99 or to the water main in Grossetta Avenue. Another trench (Feature 10538) was laid from the basement of 270 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 9, Building G), through the basement stairwell, and then east toward Toole Avenue. The trench was only recorded up to the east wall of Buildings N and O. The fact that there did not appear to have been any extension of the trench beyond this point suggests that it was once connected to a north-south trench (Features 7854 and 10170) branching off from the Council Street main (Feature 7729). Within the trench (Feature 10538) was a 4-inch-diameter iron pipe (Feature 10539). Finally, two pipes (see Figure 28) recovered in front of Block 254, Lot 2, were most likely related to water distribution (Trenches 20625 and 20633), though it is not clear how they fit into the larger system. 67 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 19. Official map of the 1889 survey of Blocks 252, 253, 254, and 255 by John Gardiner (Maps and Records Section, Engineering Division, Department of Transportation, City of Tucson). 68 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area Figure 20. The front of Old Pueblo Bowling and Billiard Parlor at 250 North Stone Avenue, ca. 1930. Note paved street in front of building (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. BN207399). 69 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 21. Streets and utilities in a portion of the project area, showing Landscaping Features 29360, 30001, and 30002. 70 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area Figure 22. Fred and Amelia Steward residence, 286 N. Stone Avenue, ca. 1910 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 41590). The date of the photograph can be inferred from the lack of pavement on Stone Avenue and the presence of trolley tracks. 71 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 23. Official map of the 1890 survey of Block 254 by George Roskruge (Maps and Records Section, Engineering Division, Department of Transportation, City of Tucson). Note that Roskruge’s survey shaved a narrow wedge off the west side of the old cemetery parcel, part of a realignment of Stone Avenue that survives today. 72 Figure 24. Block 252, Lots 6 and 7. Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area 73 Figure 25. Block 252, Lots 4a, 4b, and 5. Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 74 Figure 26. Block 252, Lots 2 and 3. Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area 75 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 27. Block 254, Lots 6 and 7. 76 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area Figure 28. Map of alley between Alameda and Council Streets, including utilities in alley and Council Street. 77 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 29. Map of utilities in the project area. 78 Chapter 5 • Streets and Utilities in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area Figure 30. Works Progress Administration Drain, Feature 17631. 79 C hapter  6 Block 252, Lot 1 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, and Tamara L. Leher Block 252, Lot 1, is shown in Figures 31 and 32. This lot was first sold in 1889, but it remained undeveloped for over 35 years, probably because of its odd shape and size, as well as its proximity to the railroad. During this time, it passed through seven different owners (see Appendix F) before coming into the possession of Harold D. Adamson. Adamson and his partner, James Clayton Baum, acquired the lot in 1925 as a new location for their automotive-tire business (see Commercial Enterprises: Baum and Adamson). The archaeological remains on this lot, consisting of Foundations 714 and 22241 (see Feature Descriptions: Building L), are the remnants of this initial building episode. In the years after Baum and Adamson constructed their first store, the lot remained in the ownership of the company, though the associated buildings were rebuilt, expanded, and remodeled many times (discussed below). As the company grew, it also expanded, adding to its holdings the adjacent Lots 2–5 and 8–10. Two other archaeological features associated with this lot, Foundations 22250 and 23867 (see Feature Descriptions: Building O), represent these later changes. Although Baum and Adamson went out of business in 1979, the building remained on this lot until 2006, when Pima County acquired it for the Joint Courts Complex. Commercial Enterprises Baum and Adamson The Baum and Adamson tire business was started by Clayton Baum and Harold Adamson, who began selling Michelin tires in 1923 (O’Mack 2005; TC, 15 February 1963). The original shop was located at the corner of Stone Avenue and Pennington Street, at the eventual site of the Pioneer Hotel, just south of the project area. Two years later, it moved into the project area at the sharply angled intersection of Toole and Stone Avenues, known as “The Point” as late as the 1960s. The two owners were reportedly hesitant about the move because “it seemed a little too far from the business section of the city” (TC, 15 February 1963). These worries proved unfounded, as the commercialization of the area was well underway by the early 1930s (see Volume 1, Chapter 12). Further, the increasingly common use of automobiles in Tucson (Luckingham 1982) soon caused a rise in demand for the tire business, as well as other automotive services, leading to the near-continuous expansion of the facility in the following decades. The original building at 296 N. Stone Avenue was a small structure occupying the small, triangular lot in Block 252. In 1929, just 4 years after it first appeared at its Stone Avenue location, the tire shop expanded south onto Lot 2. The residence that had existed there, 294 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 7), was razed and replaced with a storage room added to the southern side of the Baum and Adamson building (Sanborn 1930). In 1934, the company changed tire suppliers from Michelin to B. F. Goodrich, and the building was partially demolished and remodeled (O’Mack 2005). The new structure was made of concrete blocks and included service bays and gasoline pumps. As time went on, the business continued to expand in size and range of services. By 1940, additions to the structure abutted against the north wall of the residence at 286 N. Stone Avenue—originally Amelia and Fred Steward’s house (see Chapter 8)—on Lots 3 and 4. Sometime early in that decade, the house was demolished, except for its northern wall, which was reportedly kept in place and built into the expanded Baum and Adamson building (ADS, 12 October 1969). By 1947, there was no evidence of the house on the Sanborn map. Around 1950, the facility expanded again, absorbing the Bowyer Used Car Department at 280 N. Stone Avenue, on Lots 4 and 5 (see Chapter 9), and abutting the triangular office building that fronted Toole Avenue, on Lot 2 (see Chapter 7) (Sanborn 1949 and 1952). In 1969, Baum and Adamson completed 81 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest a major remodel that resulted in the demolition of the 1930s filling station and the incorporation of the triangular office building along Toole Avenue. The new facility sported 16 service bays and a new frontage along Toole and Stone Avenues, with parking and storage behind the building to the east (ADS, 12 October 1969; O’Mack 2005; TC, 23 May 1969, 20 October 1969). The company went out of business in 1979. Other Businesses The Downtown Auto Center continued business in the Baum and Adamson building until 1984, when the building was vacated. It briefly housed a recreational-vehicle dealership in 1989 but was not consistently occupied again until the early 1990s, when it was taken over by Coconuts nightclub (O’Mack 2005). It continued to house the nightclub until just prior to its acquisition by Pima County for the Joint Courts Complex project. During the archaeological fieldwork associated with this investigation, many elements of older structures enveloped or destroyed by Baum and Adamson expansions were still visible. Architectural Descriptions 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson (Buildings L and O) First built in 1925, this one-story commercial building was vernacular in style with Spanish Eclectic elements. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1930–1960) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 25, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 36, 45, 53, 54, and 55]; see Figures 16–18 and 33). Irregular in plan, the building fronted North Stone Avenue, with the main entrance on the northwest corner of the building. Constructed of brick, it had a flat, wood-framed roof clad in a composite material. The walls were 8–12 inches thick, and the roof had a height of 12 feet. The building had 18-inch-high parapets, with something akin to merlons at the corners and at two additional intermediate spaces along the northern parapet. The areas similar to crenels were topped with red Spanish, or Mission, tile. The building had no chimney. A large, lighted billboard sat atop the roof. At least six approximately 2-foot-high Michelin men adorned the merlons along the edge of the roof. Rectangular attic vents were located below the roofline. The exterior walls were clad in plaster. The northern part of the building was used for tire display, offices, and vulcanizing. The southern part of the building, added in 1929, was used for tire storage. A single ironor tin-clad door provided access between the northern and southern parts of the building. Windows on the west and north facades consisted of industrial, steel-sash, multipane units. In 1934, the building underwent a major remodeling, and its architectural style was changed to Art Deco. The western portion of the building that abutted North Stone Avenue was removed, and the building was expanded to the south. The new portion of the main building was constructed with concrete floors. It had a flat roof sheathed in a composite material that was supported by steel posts. The red tile and Michelin men were removed. The new parapets measured 30 inches on the south and west facades and 18 inches on the north and east. Two sizes of rectangular columns with chamfered edges projected from the front facade and extended above the roofline, terminating in ridges. The larger columns included narrow window or door openings at street level. Below the roofline on the front facade between the columns was a band molding of vertical channels. The building was clad in smooth stucco. The roof was 14 feet high. Gas and oil services were added, and a wood-framed, roofed drive-in was located on the west side and housed two gas pumps. Three additional pumps were located just north of the building, at the corner of North Stone and Toole Avenues. A hydraulic lift was located adjacent to and just south of the building. Between 1934 and 1939, the building was again remodeled. The main building was expanded to the south, enclosing the hydraulic lift. Access was provided by a service bay on the west facade. The shaped columns and decorative band molding were continued on the front facade of the expansion. Four additional room blocks were added to the building during the period from 1939 to 1947. A small, brick room block to the east had a roof sheathed in a noncombustible material. An enclosed rectangular structure was built on the east side abutting 24–28 Toole Avenue. A rectangular, wood-framed, roofed structure was built on the south end of the building. A metal-framed, roofed structure was built on the southwest corner. These addi82 Chapter 6 • Block 252, Lot 1 tions had roofs sheathed with both noncombustible and composite materials. Two service bays were located on the south facade. The oil storage was moved to the original part of the building. Between 1949 and 1952, the building was significantly remodeled and expanded, becoming an amalgam of several commercial buildings of different vintages. Constructed mostly of brick, the expansion consolidated the original buildings at 280 N. Stone Avenue, extended north to Toole Avenue, and connected to the buildings and their additions at 296 N. Stone Avenue and 24–28 Toole Avenue. A small portion of the expansion’s east wall was recorded as being constructed of metal. An additional set of wired-glass clerestory windows in the center of the building provided light to the interior of the expansion. The structure at the south end of the westerly building (294–296 N. Stone Avenue) was removed. A wood-framed, rectangular storage building was constructed on the southeast corner. The building at the northeast corner (24–28 Toole Avenue) became a restaurant. Between 1953 and 1957, the small, metal-framed structure at the southwest corner of the westerly building was removed and replaced with a large, one-story, metal-framed building at the southern end of the westerly building. It had a roof sheathed in a noncombustible material with 2-foot-high parapets. The roof height measured 14 feet. A one-story, metal-framed structure was constructed on the east side of the building, in the parking lot. It had a 12-foot-high roof sheathed in a noncombustible material. It was flanked by two service bays. During the 1969 Baum and Adamson expansion discussed above, the entire westerly building and its additions were removed in a major remodel. Additional service bays were added to the new front of the building. The addition on the east side was expanded to the south. Sometime after Baum and Adamson went out of business in 1979, all of the window and door openings were filled in, and a main entrance for a nightclub that began operating at that location in the early 1990s was placed on the west façade. Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building L (294 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) Building L (see Figures 32 and 33) consisted of two poured-concrete foundations (Features 714 and 22241) that were defined during the mechanical stripping of the project area that represented the exterior and interior walls of the building, respectively. The exterior wall defined a space of just over 68 feet long by 441/2 feet wide, oriented east-west. This space was not entirely rectangular; the northwest corner ended in a 9-foot-long wall running northeast-southwest, and the northeast corner ended in a 19-foot-long wall running northwestsoutheast, paralleling Toole Avenue. Very short sections of the south and east walls remained. Most walls in the building measured about 2 feet wide. The central interior wall of the building (Feature 22241) ran eastwest and measured 481/2 feet long and 11/2 feet wide. From this wall, two perpendicular stubs ran north, and one ran south, to create an overall width of 31 feet. Building L, as depicted on the 1930 Sanborn map, had three rooms, which were easily accounted for by the central wall of Feature 22241, as well as the two larger wall stubs. The third wall stub remains unexplained; it may have represented a smaller, unrecorded wall or could have been the result of an episode of renovation. The northeast room was about 24 feet long, and the northwest room was approximately 41 feet long; both rooms were just over 20 feet wide, minus the area missing because of the diagonally oriented walls. The south room was just over 52 feet long by 18 feet wide. Wall 22241 of Building L was superimposed upon a dog burial (Animal Burial 22345) that was encountered during mechanical stripping (see Chapter 6). It was not possible to estimate the amount of disturbance the burial received during building construction. Building O (described below) intruded on Building L (particularly Features 22238 and 22250) and resulted in the removal of the southern and eastern walls. Building O (296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) Building O (including Features 288, 715, 5273, 10074, 10090, 22238–22240, 22244, 22250, and 23867) was one of the largest buildings in the project area and had a long and varied history. Physical remains discovered during this project are depicted in Figures 32 and 33. They were composed of machinery, foundations, 83 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest concrete slabs, and concrete piers. The components of the building represent at least four phases of development and were initially four distinct buildings. The first phase of construction, in 1934, was the partial replacement of the original Baum and Adamson building (Building L, described above), with a new cinder-block building (O’Mack 2005) represented by a 30-foot-long wall—most likely the original eastern wall of the 1934 building. A pit (Feature 715) measuring 5 by 3 feet was discovered southwest of this building. It is possible that this pit represented the outdoor hoist visible in Figure 33 (top center). In 1940, during the second phase of construction, the block building was expanded to the south, up to and including the northern wall of the house at 286 N. Stone Avenue (Building H) (see Chapter 8). The addition included Features 288, 22238, 22239, 22240, and 22244. Feature 22238 was a concrete slab approximately 47 feet square. This slab was most likely the floor slab of the service area, although it may have predated the covering structure, and it included a built-in hydraulic hoist (Feature 22244). The hoist was located midway between the north and south edges of the slab, 8 feet from its eastern boundary. Concrete foundations (Features 22239 and 22240) were located along the eastern edge of Feature 22238, forming the eastern wall of the building, with an extant length of about 64 feet. The 121/2-foot gap between Features 22239 and 22240 was probably a doorway. According to the 1947 Sanborn map, another concrete pad (Feature 288) was likely attached to the south end of Building O and under a covering roof. The extant remains were trapezoidal in shape and measured about 22 feet along the east, west, and south edges and 131/2 feet along the north edge. The gap between the concrete slabs (Features 288 and 22238) was probably created during the removal of the wall that was once between them, once the northern wall of Building H. The third phase saw the continued expansion of Building O, which by 1960 was a contiguous structure stretching from the intersection of Toole and Stone Avenues south to the wall of 250 N. Stone Avenue, Building J (Sanborn 1960). Building O, at this point, contained not only the expanded block building with which Baum and Adamson had replaced Building L but also Buildings M and N (see Chapters 8 and 9) and all the land between. The building had also grown to incorporate the triangular structure at 24–28 Toole Avenue (see Chapter 7, Building X), although it still operated as an independent business. It was probably during this expansion that the final two hydraulic hoists (Features 5273 and 10090) were added. It is likely that these hoists were of the same basic construction as those described in Building N (see Chapter 9). The fourth construction phase included the removal of the south wall of Building M (the north wall of Building N) as Buildings M and N were incorporated into Building O. This would have included the use of the east walls of Buildings M and N as part of the east wall of Building O and their extension north to the southeast corner of Building X. The remains of this wall (Features 17545 and 10091, combined) were approximately 101 feet long. A second wall (Feature 23867), measuring about 521/2 feet long, was constructed along Toole Avenue to connect the north corner of Building X to Building O. A number of large features associated with Building O were constructed during either this phase or a later one. These included two north-south concrete foundations (Features 10074 and 17546) and a concrete slab (Feature 10452). Foundation 10074, measuring 124 feet long, was a part of the west wall of Building O at the time it was demolished during this project. Foundation 17546 was located 25 feet east of the main eastern wall of Building O (Features 17545 and 10091) and measured 72 feet long. Between this foundation and the eastern wall of Building O was a concrete slab (Feature 10452) measuring just over 24 feet square. The purpose of these two features is unclear; photographs (e.g., Appendix B [Photo Index No. 46]) show a covered area where these features would have been. A number of smaller features within the boundaries of Building O were probably also associated with the structure, based on the orientations and alignments of those features with the rest of the building. One of the most obvious alignments was that of seven concrete piers (Features 10083, 10084, 10085, 10086, 10897, 10898, and 10900) running north-south along the interior side of the west wall of Building O and spanning portions of both Buildings M and N. The piers were about 13 feet from the western wall and measured about 3 feet in diameter. They were irregularly spaced in a 67-foot-long line. From the placement pattern observed, it is inferred that the piers once supported columns and that there were two openings between these columns through which cars could be driven. The remaining small features associated with Building O were spread throughout the building and may have served as structural supports or platforms. A square concrete slab (Feature 10092) measured about 61/2 feet on a side. It was located west of Feature 17545—the east wall of Buildings O and N—and south of Feature 10090—the hydraulic hoist from Building O. A circular concrete pier (Feature 10093) measuring approximately 3 feet in diameter was located 4 feet west of Feature 10092. A square concrete pier (Feature 10883) measured approximately 11/2 feet on each side. It was located at the junction between the 84 Chapter 6 • Block 252, Lot 1 two extant features of the east wall (Features 17545 and 10091). Feature 10899 was a circular concrete pier that measured approximately 3 feet in diameter. It was located to the east of Feature 10900, the northernmost pier of the alignment listed above. Feature 10088, a concrete foundation approximately 24 feet south of Feature 10900, measured 5 by 4 feet. A square concrete slab (Feature 22347) measuring approximately 5 feet in diameter was located about 51/2 feet south of the southwest corner of Building X. A portion of a 21/2-foot concrete pier (Feature 23868) was located adjacent to the southwest corner of Building X. A few features predating Building O were disturbed by the building itself. The concrete slab (Feature 288) overlay a tree pit (Landscaping Feature 5402). The remainder were disturbed by the western wall of the building (Feature 10074). The foundations of Buildings G and H (see Chapters 9 and 8, respectively) were missing to the east of this wall, leaving only parts of the basements intact. The wall also intruded on the upper fill of the western ends of three graves (Grave Pits 10078, 10079, and 10080); the burials in those graves were not disturbed. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Few artifacts were recovered from Block 252, Lot 1; this likely is because there was no residential use of the lot and the only building constructed on the lot was the Baum and Adamson commercial structure that was only recently razed in preparation for this project. In 2006, the razing and grading of the building’s superstructure was thorough and resulted in removal of most above-ground material-culture remains on the lot. Because no residence was ever built on this lot, it is not surprising that the following domestic-artifact categories were not represented in the collection: ceramic tablewares, glass and metal tablewares, food and beverage containers, medicine containers, liquor bottles, clothing and clothing fasteners, footwear, personal items, weaponry, recreation, household, and faunal and floral remains. Somewhat more surprisingly, no artifacts were recovered that might have resulted from operation of a tire/automotive repair shop or the later nightclub, such as transportation-related items, smoking paraphernalia, communication artifacts, or construction materials/hardware (including machinery and remains of utilities). Chronology, Correlation, and Summary No residences were ever built on Block 252, Lot 1; consequently, archaeological features there represented only commercial enterprises. Poured-concrete foundations (Features 714 and 22241) represented the earliest commercial construction, which was of the Baum and Adamson tire shop, in 1925. The enterprise grew as other automotive industry shops entered the neighborhood. As detailed above, the early portion of the building was remodeled and reconfigured over time, and Foundation Features 22250 and 23867 were remnants of later construction. 85 Figure 31. Block 252, Lots 1 and 2. Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 86 Chapter 6 • Block 252, Lot 1 Figure 32. Block 252, Lots 1, 2, 3, 4a, 4b, 5, 8, and portions of Lots 9a, 9b, and 10, showing Baum and Adamson Tire and Automotive Company Complex. 87 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 33. Baum and Adamson Tire and Automotive Company (photographs courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, unless otherwise noted): top, in 1929 (PC177_B1_F19_1712); top center, in 1934 (BN208068); bottom center, ca. the 1940s (105249); bottom, in 1969 (© Copyright Tucson Citizen; 88 reproduced with permission). C hapter  7 Block 252, Lot 2 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 294 N. Stone Avenue First sold to William Siewert in 1889, Lot 2 of Block 252 (see also Chapter 6) remained in the Siewert family (see below) until 1926, giving it one of the most stable ownership histories in the project area. Interestingly, though the family owned the property for 37 years, they never occupied it. Instead, they constructed a residential building and operated it as a rental property. The family took out two mortgages on the lot. The first, in 1889, was most likely used to purchase the property. The second mortgage, taken out in 1898 with the Citizen’s Building and Loan Association, was probably the one used to build the house that first appeared in Tucson city directories at 294 N. Stone Avenue in 1901. Given that the second mortgage was taken out late in 1898, it is unlikely that the residence would have been completed in time for its inclusion within the 1899– 1900 directory; however, it was likely erected by the end of 1899. A small rental property, at 1,068 square feet, the structure would remain apparently unchanged for the next 30 years (Sanborn 1901–1922). During this time, a number of people occupied the property. The earliest known residents were Philip C. Brannen, a clothing salesman who worked for L. Zeckendorf & Company and later started his own clothier shop, called Brannen and Hanny. With Brannen lived his immediate family; his sister-in-law, Anna Barry; a roomer named William Kirkland, who worked as a dry goods clerk; and a female servant named Clara Antonio. Philip and his wife, Elizabeth, had both been born in Canada to Irish parents, though their daughter Dorothy was born in Arizona. Kirkland was an immigrant from England. Clara, by contrast, was at least second-generation Arizonan through both parents, which means, because of the time period (1900), it is likely she was Native or Mexican American (O’Mack 2005:59). The Brannens were known to occupy the residential structure at 294 N. Stone Avenue in 1900–1902, but their whereabouts after that time remain unknown. The longest-tenured occupants of 294 N. Stone Avenue were Mrs. Madge Harrison and her daughter, Thelma. The two women came from Ohio and lived at 294 N. Stone Avenue between 1919 and 1924, and Madge worked as a dressmaker out of her home. Though Madge was listed as married rather than widowed on the 1920 census, her husband never lived with her and Thelma on the project area. Several other tenants came and went throughout the residential period (see Appendix D). In 1908, William Hendry, chief engineer for the Tucson Ice & Cold Storage Company, was known to be living on the property but does not appear to have stayed more than a year. Hendry also lived at 250 N. Stone Avenue for a short time. Edward P. Ridgley, proprietor of the Subway Garage, and his wife, Jennie, born in England, lived at 294 N. Stone Avenue between 1917 and 1918. Edward and Jenny had a daughter, Margaret, in 1914, when they were living in Mammoth, Arizona; so, there would have been a small child at this residence. Her birth certificate reports that she was Jenny’s second, but only living, child (ASBH BVS 1914a). In 1926, the Siewert Family sold the lot to William L. Bowen, who lived there for the next 2 years with his wife, Margaret. He briefly rented the property to William J. McKenzie and his wife, Jane, in 1929, before selling the lot to the Baum and Adamson automotive store. Two archaeological features discovered on the lot during excavation probably date to the residential period (see Figure 31). The first was a dog burial (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Animal Burial 22345). Unfortunately, the relationship between the dog’s grave and the residence is unclear. No material evidence of the residential building was encountered during excavation; however, information derived from Sanborn maps (1901–1922) suggests that the dog was buried along the back wall of the house, either under or directly next to the back porch. 89 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest The second residential period feature represented the remains of the household privy (see Feature Descriptions: Privy Pit 22355). Many of the privy pits in the project area were located along the rear property line of the associated household. In this case, however, such a positioning may not have offered an acceptable level of privacy, as the rear property line coincided with the southwest side of Toole Avenue. Perhaps for that reason, the privy pit was situated along the southern property line, 20 feet west of Toole Avenue and 55 feet from the rear of the house. A small outbuilding is visible on the Sanborn maps (1901–1922), near where the privy was discovered. Interestingly, as with many of the Stone Avenue outbuildings, the size of the structure increased dramatically (about 60 percent, in this case) between 1914 and 1919, a change that may indicate repurposing of the building following the introduction of sewer service along Stone Avenue. One final feature (Posthole 716) held a metal post but could not be definitely dated to either the residential or the commercial period. Commercial History: 296 N. Stone Avenue and 20–28 Toole Avenue In 1929, 294 N. Stone Avenue was acquired by the expanding business of Baum and Adamson for construction of a tire-storage room (Sanborn 1930). An office building was also constructed on the east end of Lot 2, along Toole Avenue, between late 1928 and 1929—a determination based on a comparison of photos and city directories. It housed the Gouley Burcham Company food-brokerage company, and various other businesses along with it, for close to 30 years. However, the lot remained inextricably linked to Baum and Adamson from that time forward. Indeed, by the time the company left the project area in 1979, their building had long since encompassed Burcham’s building, as well as many others. Photos of the Baum and Adamson conglomerate as it changed and grew through time can be seen in Figure 33. Eleven archaeological features identified on this lot were associated with the commercial activities of Baum and Adamson. Included were foundations, a concrete pier and slab, an automobile hoist, and a pit that may once have held another hoist (see Feature Descriptions: Buildings L and O). A single foundation (see Feature Descriptions: Building X) was uncovered, representing the small, triangular building that housed the Gouley Burcham Company. Another brokerage firm, the Coe-Marsh Company, shared office space in this building until the late 1930s, whereas the Gouley Burcham Company remained at its project area location until 1958. In the intervening years, the company had many neighbors sharing the building: Safeway, Copper State Merchandise Company, L. & J. Morris (liquor), offices of the Maudina Tungsten Mine, and the A. R. Staley Sales Company. Finally, in 1948, it was joined on the premises by Larry’s Coffee Cup (see Commercial Enterprises). Except for a brief hiatus in 1950, Larry’s Coffee Cup operated at this location until 1968 and was the building’s sole tenant for the last decade of the structure’s independent existence. Then, around 1969, Baum and Adamson undertook a large, $150,000 remodeling project, incorporating the small free-standing building into the larger complex (ADS, 12 October 1969; TC, 23 May 1969, 20 October 1969). Biographies Siewert William Siewert was born in Bellstock, Russia, in 1847 (ASBH BVS 1918a). After acquiring Lot 2 in 1889, Siewert transferred the property into the name of his wife, Sophie, in 1898 (Figure 34). By that time, William had become proprietor of The French Restaurant and may have wished to protect his other holdings from potential creditors related to his business. He was known to be associated with the restaurant until at least 1903, and by 1906, he had taken over proprietorship of the Willard Hotel. He was retired by 1912 and died November 23, 1918, of heart disease. Sophie, a Danish (ASBH BVS 1926a) or German (ASBH BVS 1914b) immigrant who had spent a year in Illinois before coming to Tucson, died in 1914 (TC, 15 January 1914). By 1916, property ownership passed to the couple’s daughters. 90 Chapter 7 • Block 252, Lot 2 Edith, the eldest daughter, graduated from the Boston Conservatory of Music and married Quintus Monier in 1901 (Negley and Lindley 1994). Their son, Paul Quintus Monier, was born on February 10, 1904 (Monier 1904). Monier, a native of France born in 1855, had come to the United States in 1877, settling first in Santa Fe, New Mexico. There he worked as a builder, using knowledge gained from his father’s trade as a brick layer and stonecutter (Chapman Publishing Company 1901) to construct many of the distinctive structures in that city, including the U.S. Court House and the St. Francis Cathedral. He came to Tucson in 1894 to construct the new San Augustine Cathedral in downtown Tucson. In addition to other building projects around the city, Monier went on to found the Tucson Pressed Brick Company. This eventually involved him in an unsuccessful bid to pave the city streets with local pressed brick instead of imported asphalt. He later secured a term as Tucson mayor (AHS n.d. g) and died in 1923. Edith lived until 1935, when she died, at the age of 60 (ADS, 25 February 1935; TC, 25 February 1935). The youngest daughter, Elsie Siewert, born in San Francisco, married James Kilroy Brown Jr.; she died in 1923 (ADS, 26 May 1923) or 1926 (ASBH BVS 1926a) of cirrhosis of the liver. Elsie’s interest in the project area holdings presumably passed to her husband at this time, and the lot was sold by the remaining family members to W. L. Bowen in 1926. Burcham In 1929, Gouley Neal Burcham purchased Lots 6 and 7 of Block 254 from Elizabeth Wills and Celestino Sanchez, respectively. In 1930, the office for his food-brokerage firm moved into 24 Toole Avenue, a small triangle of land on Lot 2 of Block 252, where it stayed until 1958. Burcham (Figure 35) was born in Eldorado Springs, Missouri, in either 1884 or 1885 (ADS, 3 September 1971; AHS n.d. j). He arrived in Arizona in 1909 and came to Tucson a few years later, where he founded the Gouley Burcham Company. The firm quickly expanded, opening a branch in Phoenix in 1915, followed by branches in El Paso, Albuquerque, and Los Angeles (ADS, 3 September 1971). In 1915, he married Irma Emilia Rosenstern, a Tucson native. She was born in 1892 and had attended Stanford University (AHS n.d. k; TDC, 19 December 1975). Two daughters were born in Tucson, Jean Emilie Burcham in 1917 and Irmanea Virginia Burcham in 1929. According to her birth certificate, Jean was Irma’s first child, and Irmanea was her third living child, but no records were found of the middle birth (ASBH BVS 1917b, 1929a). The family moved to Los Angeles between 1937 and 1940 (ADS, 3 September 1971; TC, 2 September 1971). Both parents were active members in numerous social organizations. Burcham retired as president of his company in the late 1950s, around the time that its Tucson office disappeared from the project area. Commercial Enterprises Baum and Adamson For an account of Baum and Adamson, see Chapter 6. Larry’s Coffee Cup Larry’s Coffee Cup, which occupied part of the triangular building at 26 Toole Avenue for approximately 20 years, was opened by its apparently eponymous owner, Larry Granucci, in 1948. In 1950, he sold the business to Ernest Lampe, who renamed the restaurant Ernie’s Grill. The change of name and management was apparently unsuccessful, because the restaurant reverted to Larry’s Coffee Cup the next year, under the management of Mrs. Esther Hess. In 1954, management changed again, and the restaurant was taken over by a man named Hyman Podolsky. Podolsky seems to have been the most successful proprietor of Larry’s Coffee Cup, gainfully operating the restaurant until the building was absorbed by Baum and Adamson, in 1969. 91 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Other Businesses The space in the triangular office building between Larry’s Coffee Cup and Gouley Burcham Company was often occupied by other businesses, most with a high turnover rate. Between 1948 and 1953, it was occupied first by a merchandise broker, then by a Baum and Adamson storage facility, and finally by a wholesale produce company. The businesses in this building usually had addresses that were different from one another, though the exact address for each tended to vary from year to year. These variations almost certainly do not represent physical changes in location. By 1954, only Larry’s Coffee Cup and the Gouley Burcham Company remained in the building, and the 1960 Sanborn map indicates the restaurant may have begun expanding into the empty space between them. It may even have taken over the entire building when Gouley Burcham Company finally vacated, in the late 1950s. The restaurant remained until 1968, when the building it occupied was absorbed by the ever-expanding Baum and Adamson complex (TC, 23 May 1969, 20 October 1969). The original structure was still visible among the remains of the Baum and Adamson conglomerate when excavations began for the Joint Courts Complex project. Architectural Descriptions 294 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Structure (No Building Number) This one-story, single-family dwelling was Folk Victorian in style (see Figure 14) (Sanborn 1901–1922). Oriented west-east, the front entrance faced west onto North Stone Avenue. Constructed of brick, it was irregular in plan, with moderately pitched, wood-framed, cross-gable-on-hipped roofs sheathed in wood shingles. The building had wood-framed cornices with narrowly overhanging eaves. There were two interior chimneys with corbelled chimney caps. The west facade had a wood-framed, spindlework entry porch with a wood-shingled roof, created by the hip flaring out over the porch. Steps provided access to the porch. The east (rear) facade had a wood-framed porch with a wood-shingled roof. Sometime between 1915 and 1919, the rear-porch roof was resheathed in a composite material. 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson (Buildings L and O) For a description of 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, see Chapter 6. 24–28 Toole Avenue, Gouley Burcham Company (Building X) This two-story commercial building was triangular in shape and fronted Toole Avenue starting in 1930. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1930–1960) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 25, 28, 30, and 45]; see Figures 15–18). Constructed of brick, the building had 12-inch-thick walls. The roof was flat, wood-framed, and sheathed in a composite material. The south facade had no fenestration. Sometime between 1937 and 1947, a rectangular one-story addition was added to the south facade. The brick addition had a roof sheathed in a noncombustible material. Between 1950 and 1952, the building was incorporated into the expanding Baum and Adamson building to the west (see Chapter 6). 92 Chapter 7 • Block 252, Lot 2 Archaeological Feature Descriptions Animal Burial 22345 This feature was a north-south-oriented pit, approximately 19 by 11 inches in plan view. Because the surrounding matrix was unconsolidated, the feature was impacted by the backhoe during mechanical stripping, and the remains were collected as a grab sample. It appeared that the remains were articulated prior to the backhoe excavation. The feature was a very shallow, ovate basin within a matrix consistent with Natural Stratum I. It lay partially under Feature 22241, a concrete foundation. The feature contained the postcranial remains of an adult canid, most likely a domestic dog, totaling 27 bones. The remains included most of the bones from both hind limbs, including femur, patella, tibia, and several tarsals. Portions of both forelimbs were also recovered, including the left and right humeri and ulnae, as well as the right radius. Carpals were absent, but a few phalanges were recovered. The innominate was not identified, but several pieces of flat bone were found. The left scapula was represented by the glenoid, and many rib fragments and a few vertebrae were present. Building L (294 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) For a description of Building L, see Chapter 6. Building O (296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) For a description of Building O, see Chapter 6. Building X (24–28 Toole Avenue, Gouley Burcham Company) Building X was represented by Feature 22243, an east-west-oriented, subtriangular, poured-concrete foundation approximately 371/2 by 47 feet in plan view. This building was constructed on top of Privy Pit 22355, which was previously associated with the residence at 294 N. Stone Avenue; no impact to the privy pit was noted. Building X was adjacent to Foundation 23967, a concrete feature running northwest along Toole Avenue from the northern corner of Building X. Additionally, the southwest corner of Building X abutted Concrete Pier 23868. Both 23867 and 23868 were part of a modern structure, Building O, which eventually incorporated the originally free-standing Building X. The west wall of the building measured 33 feet 9 inches in length, the south wall was 44 feet 4 inches, and the northeast wall, along Toole, was 55 feet 4 inches long. The walls were 10 inches in width. Instead of coming to points, the southeast and north corners of the triangle were replaced by 5-foot-long walls that ran northeast-southwest. Privy Pit 22355 Privy Pit 22355 was an east-west-oriented, subrectangular pit first identified during mechanical scraping. The feature was 99 inches deep, belling slightly on its east-west axis, from 57 by 52 inches at the top to 65 by 50 inches at the bottom. Because of the depth of the feature, it was excavated in two arbitrary stages, in compliance with OSHA safety regulations. Otherwise, excavation proceeded according to methods previously established for historical nongrave features. At its greatest extent, Stage 1 was 65 inches deep, and Stage 2 was 34 inches. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II in the upper feature but graded into loose gravelly sand consistent with Natural Stratum III near the bottom. The feature was broken into nine strata. The lowest was a layer of trashy fill that, in profile, formed a step on the west end of the feature (Figure 36). Between this step and the east end of the feature, there existed a relatively thin layer of clean fill along the floor. The odd shape of the lowest stratum may indicate an episode in which the privy was incompletely cleaned out for reuse. Above it were two layers of greenish-gray 93 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest fill indicative of the presence of human waste separated by a second layer of clean fill. No evidence of lime was recorded, but a trashy level, heavy with charcoal and ash, capped the final, green stratum. Above this cap, the feature apparently was used primarily as a dump for household waste. This may represent the repurposing of the feature after the introduction of sewage lines at the turn of the twentieth century. In particular, Stratum III showed a high density of historical artifacts, including whole bottles, a large quantity of oyster shells, and clothing fragments. The concentration of trash decreased toward the top, where the feature was capped with a layer of dry, sandy fill that held few artifacts. The fill also became drier and lighter in color near the top of the feature. As will be discussed later, the date range for this feature as derived from artifact analysis is relatively tight, suggesting the feature was filled shortly after its abandonment and did not serve as a midden for an extended period of time. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Investigations on Block 252, Lot 2, yielded no artifacts in the following categories: communication items, household artifacts, and floral remains. The remains of tableware items dominated the ceramic collection, and similar fragments spread throughout Strata I–III suggest that much of the ceramic collection was deposited at the same time. Sherds from plates (MVC = 10), saucers (MVC = 7), cups (MVC = 4), and bowls (MVC = 3) composed 62 percent of the identified vessel forms. Seven plates were semivitreous, white-bodied earthenware, and three were hardpaste porcelain. Relief molding and enameling were the main decoration types, especially on the semivitreous vessels. Sherds from a hand-painted, Japanese porcelain plate with women in traditional dress and a village scene was recovered from Stratum III. This Japanese vessel was part of a larger set, portions of which were recovered from other strata in this feature. Saucers were also semivitreous earthenware or hardpaste porcelain. Three of the porcelain saucers found in Strata I–III had similar transfer-printed designs and polychrome decals with gilding along the rims. A saucer made by the Goodwin Brothers Pottery Company was from their line of “Pearl White” semivitreous earthenware (1885–1890s) (Gates and Ormerod 1982:53). Bowls included sherds from a semivitreous vessel with relief-molded decoration and two sponge-decorated, stoneware mixing bowls. Cup forms included sherds from hardpaste porcelain or semivitreous vessels, and a cup from Stratum III matched the three saucers found in Strata I–III. Additionally, a Japanese cup from Stratum III was similar to other plates and bowls from this collection. Other recovered ceramics included fragments from a stoneware jar with lid, a teapot with lid, and a serving bowl from Homer Laughlin’s “Golden Gate” series (ca. 1896) (Page et al. 2003:31). Privy 22355 contained 22 (MVC = 12) nonceramic-tableware and culinary artifacts that were recovered from 6 of the feature’s 10 stratigraphic units. Except for 3 fragments from a blown-glass tumbler, nonceramic tablewares were concentrated in Strata I–V. The blown-glass tumbler had a “needle-etched” design and was similar to vessels advertised in the Sears catalog for 1906 that were priced between $1.85 and $1.00 per dozen (1906:364). Eighty-six percent (n = 19; MVC = 8) of nonceramic tablewares in this feature were from glass drinking vessels and bowls. Drinking vessels were represented by shards from 5 pressed-glass tumblers and a stemmed cordial glass. A colorless, cut-glass decorative bowl and a milk-glass lid to a decorative vessel were also recovered. Culinary artifacts in this feature included the lid from a gray enamelware tea-kettle or coffee-pot lid and a soapstone griddle. The griddle was oval in shape and was approximately 161/2 inches long and 81/2 inches wide, with a ferrous-metal rim. This was a medium size for griddles based on similar items observed in Sears catalogs. Soapstone griddles of this size cost $0.72 in both the 1902 and 1906 catalogs (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1902:583, 1906:377) (Figure 37). Six of the 10 stratigraphic layers of Privy Pit 22355 held a minimum of 21 food/beverage containers, including 11 bottles, 5 jars, and 5 cans. Two bottle/jar closures were also represented. These containers and closures were observed in the uppermost and bottommost layers. The food/beverage glass with identifiable technology was primarily machine-made. Evidence of bottles was found in only 3 strata (upper-middle) from this feature, and at least 3 unidentified beverage, 1 extract, 1 food-preserves, and 6 condiment bottles were found. Condiment bottles were 2 ketchup bottles, 1 from the Curtice Brothers Company, dating from 1867 through the 1920s (Toulouse 1971:150; Zumwalt 1980:101), and 1 from the H. J. Heinz Company that dates as early as 1888. A Dr. Price extract bottle was present; this product was advertised in different sizes in the Sears catalog for 1897, ranging in price from 9 to 95 cents (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]) and offering vanilla and lemon flavors. A Lea and Perrins’ Worcestershire sauce bottle stopper, 94 Chapter 7 • Block 252, Lot 2 produced between ca. 1839 and 1957 (Zumwalt 1980:269), was also recovered. Jars were only observed in the first 2 upper stratigraphic layers. The majority of jar contents remain unidentified. Evidence of at least 2 preserves jars, embossed “LONG’S/9/CALIFORNIA/PRESERVES” and “BISHOP/1/&/COMPANY”, were found. H. C. Long Syrup Company made Long’s California preserves between 1896 and 1930. The jar packed by Bishop and Company may be attributed to a company of that name that produced “pure food products” from 1868 to the 1880s in San Francisco or to another company that was preserving fruit and peanut butter in San Diego by 1904 and until 1932 (Zumwalt 1980:282, 48). Some home-canning activity was taking place in the household, as evidenced by at least 1 canning jar, embossed “EASY/CO./TRADE VJC MARK/VACUUM/JAR”, present in Stratum I. The San Francisco & Pacific Glass Company produced this canning jar from 1893 to 1901 (Toulouse 1969:104). A screw-top jar lid also represented a glass food jar. The majority of can contents remain unidentified. One sanitary can was identified in the first stratigraphic layer. At least 1 can in the feature contained baking powder produced by the Royal Baking Powder Company. Although some of the artifacts recovered from this feature entered production as early as 1880, long before this lot was occupied, temporally diagnostic food and beverage containers indicate deposition between the initial occupation of the lot and 1957. A total of 187 alcohol bottles and shards from at least 44 vessels were recovered from Privy Pit 22355 on Block 252, Lot 2. Although the privy was composed of 10 stratigraphic units, alcohol-related artifacts were only identified in 6 strata (Strata II–VI and X). Bottle shards were concentrated in Strata III, IV, and V, which had a combined density of 5.72 per cubic foot (0.16/m³). This compares with a density of 0.31 per cubic foot (less than 0.01/m³) for alcohol-bottle shards in the other strata. Shards were most frequent in Stratum III, which contained 39 percent (n = 72; MVC = 19), at a density of 8.22 per cubic foot (0.23/m³), and Stratum V, which had 48 percent (n = 90; MVC = 19) and a density of 7.35 per cubic foot (0.21/m³). The uneven distribution of bottle remains most likely represents changing preferences of the property’s occupants throughout time. The types of alcohol-bottle remains were recovered in relatively equal proportions throughout the entire feature, with 32 percent beer-bottle shards (n = 60; MVC = 20), 35 percent distilled spirits (n = 65; MVC = 9), and 33 percent wine or champagne (n = 62; MVC = 15). These shards were unevenly positioned stratigraphically, however. Forty-three percent of beer-bottle shards (n = 26) were recovered from Stratum III, and 55 percent (n = 33) came from Stratum V. Eighty-five percent of distilled-spirits-bottle shards (n = 55) were recovered from Stratum V. Wine‑ and champagne-bottle shards were most prevalent in Stratum III, where 60 percent (n = 37) were collected, and Stratum IV, which contained 34 percent (n = 21). Datable beer‑ and spirits-bottle shards made between 1878 and 1925 were recovered from Strata III and V. Dated shards from Stratum III included the remains of a beer bottle made by the Adolphus Busch Glass Manufacturing Company (1886–1925) and two Taylor and Williams Incorporated Whiskey Company bottles (1881–1910) (Whitten 2009; Wilson and Wilson 1968:141). Dates from Stratum V were obtained from the remains of three beer bottles made by the Streator Bottle Glass Company (1881 and 1905) and a beer bottle made by Cunningham and Company (1879–1907) (Toulouse 1971:461; Whitten 2009). No dates were obtained from wine or champagne bottles. Five of the 10 stratigraphic layers in Privy Pit 22355 yielded clothing fasteners and fabric. Corsetry hardware represented the majority of the sample, followed by undecorated buttons. Both men’s and women’s clothing was indicated. Primarily recovered from Stratum IV, eyelets and stays represented corsetry hardware. Buttons from the feature included sew-through and unidentified-shank buttons, recovered largely in the upper stratigraphic layers. Sizes indicated use on lingerie, shirts, dresses, vests, pants, suspenders, and coats. Snaps, hooks and eyes, rivets, a suspender clasp, a small safety pin, a straight pin, and garter/hosiery hardware were present. A large cinch buckle was present in Stratum IV. Straight pins were recovered from Strata I and III. Cotton, silk, synthetic and unidentified fabrics were present in upper stratigraphic layers. Black cotton, taffeta, and silk fragments were identified, representing a minimum of two corsets. Brown rayon (also known as “viscose” and artificial silk) stocking fragments were found in Stratum IV. Artificial-silk hose (stockings) were advertised as “Art silk” in Butler Brother’s 1921 Catalog (1921:18), at prices ranging from $5.50 a dozen to $8.75 a dozen and in such colors as black, white, cordovan (a shade of brown), and gray for women. Fabric indicated at least two garments were present. Over 100 fragments representing a minimum of 2 leather boots (1 right boot and 1 unknown) were recovered from Privy Pit 22355. Both brown and black fragments were present among the largely nondiagnostic shoe leather, and most of the fragments were contained within Stratum IV. Five of the 10 stratigraphic layers of Privy Pit 22355 produced personal artifacts, with health/hygiene items being the most prevalent. A sun-colored-amethyst jar that once contained a Vaseline product was 95 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest manufactured between 1880 and 1920 (Fike 2006:56; Polk 2006). Also recovered was a portion of a straightedge razor. This type of razor was advertised in period catalogs and sold for 58 cents to $2.00 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1902:496, 497). Rubber tubing and a black-rubber, urethral fountain syringe from this privy were used in conjunction with hot-water bottles for douching. A glass plunger and barrel represented a glass fountain syringe. Colorless-glass eyedropper shards (MVC = 1) and black unidentified-plastic dressing-comb fragments (MVC = 1) were also found. Beauty/cosmetic items, concentrated in Strata II and V, were represented by a minimum of four bottles and a stoneware jar lid. Evidence of at least one shoe-polish bottle, a perfume bottle, and two lotion/cream bottles was found. The lotion/cream bottles were embossed “GOURAUD’S//ORIENTAL/CREAM//NEW YORK”. Gouraud’s was in production as early as the 1840s (Fike 2006:92; Wilson 1981:133) and was sold for $1.05 in the Sears catalog for 1897 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]:50). The stoneware jar lid was transfer printed with “(M)AISON DORIN/ . . . AZARE PARIS/DEPOSE/FAR . . . /TOI[L]ETTE/ [FA]BRIQUE” and may have covered a container that held powdered perfume (France Excellence n.d.). Maison Dorin has a long history of perfume making, reaching as far back as 1780, when appointed by the Royal Court of Versailles. Since 1998, the brand has been maintained under France Excellence. Maison Dorin perfumes included “Un Air de Paris,” “Un Air de Damas,” “Candlelight,” and “Rose des Vents.” Jewelry from this feature included nonferrous, stamped fragments that may have been a pendant or brooch, a nonferrous flower that may have been a brooch or a lapel pin, and an unidentified-plastic decorative hairpin. Nonferrous coin-purse-frame fragments were also recovered. Medicine-related glass artifacts were recovered from 5 of the 10 stratigraphic levels of Privy Pit 22355. A total of 53 glass artifacts (MVC = 30) were recovered from this feature. Fifteen artifacts, all from Stratum IV, were from cylindrical glass tubing that may have been an ampoule or test tube, and the remaining 72 percent (n = 38; MVC = 29) were from various medicine bottles. About 60 percent (n = 32; MVC = 23) of the medicinal glass had characteristics of hand-finishing, compared with 40 percent (n = 21; MVC = 7) with machine-made characteristics or unidentified manufacturing techniques. The density of medicine-related glass in the privy was about 0.81 per cubic foot (0.023/m³). Medicinal glass was most frequent and dense in Strata IV and V, which contained 79 percent (n = 42; MVC = 22) of these artifacts and had a combined density of 1.82 per cubic foot (0.052/m³). Medicinal glass was most dense in Stratum IV (n = 21; MVC = 2), which had a density of 2.35 per cubic foot (0.067/m³). Thirteen datable bottles were recovered throughout Privy Pit 22355 but were primarily located in Strata V and X. Based on bottle-manufacturer marks and product-manufacture dates, medicinal glass in Stratum V was made between 1868 and 1930. Glass in Stratum X was made between the 1870s and 1942 (Toulouse 1971:264, 373–374, 417, 440; Fike 2006:67, 177, 179; Whitten 2009). Identified products included Listerine and the gastrointestinal treatment, Pitcher’s Castoria. A bottle made for the Parisian remedy Santal de Midy (1870s–1942)—which once contained a medicine used to treat kidney disease, bladder disorders, and venereal disease—was recovered from Stratum X (Fike 2006:179). A bottle made for the Arcadian Pharmacy of Tucson (1897–1907) was recovered from Stratum V. The Arcadian Pharmacy was located at 22 E. Congress Street, about 1/2 mile south of Privy Pit 22355, and was listed in city directories from 1897 until at least 1907 (TCD 1917). Shards from Obear-Nestor Glass Company (1915–1980), Illinois Glass Company (1915–1929), and Parke Davis bottles were also recovered from this feature (Toulouse 1971:264, 417; Whitten 2009). Thirty-two recreational items were recovered from Privy Pit 22355. These items consisted of a handle fragment of a toy porcelain cup or teapot, 3 porcelain sherds from a minimum of 2 toy saucers, the spout from a toy ceramic teapot, 24 fragments from at least 2 ceramic dolls, and 3 black-and-white-glass shards from a doll’s eye. One of the doll fragments exhibited an aerographic pink decoration, and the back of another was stamped “. . . 093/1a/05.” Portions of this mark are likely a mold number and doll size, but it was not identified in lists of standard marks. The single smoking-related artifact recovered from Block 252, Lot 2, was a black Bakelite smoking-pipe stem from a two-piece pipe excavated from Stratum X of Privy Pit 22355. Privy Pit 22355 contained 103 weaponry artifacts, all from various-caliber ammunition, which composed 52 percent of all firearm-related artifacts recovered from the project area. Thirteen lead bullets, 28 cartridges and cartridge casings, and 49 shotgun shells and buckshot pellets were among ammunition artifacts recovered from this feature. Additionally, 13 artifacts were paper wadding or miscellaneous cartridge-casing fragments. Although this feature had a total of 10 strata, ammunition was only recovered from 4 of the upper strata: Strata I and III–V. No ammunition was recovered from the lower 5 strata. Stratum I contained the fewest artifacts in this feature (n = 2), and Stratum III yielded 6 artifacts. Stratum IV had the largest number of ammunition artifacts (n = 94) and the highest artifact density, at 8.94 per cubic foot (0.25/m³). Twentythree firearms-related artifacts were identified in Stratum V, and this level had a density of 1.62 per cubic 96 Chapter 7 • Block 252, Lot 2 foot (0.46/m³). Because of the large number of ammunition artifacts in Privy Pit 22355, the overall artifact density (1.58/cubic foot or 0.045/m³) was much higher than that of any other feature from the postcemetery period. Weaponry in Privy Pit 22355 included bullets, cartridges, and shotgun shells for use with a variety of firearms. The largest number of identified cartridges (n = 12) was ammunition made for the .41 Long Colt made by Winchester Repeating Arms. The .41 Colt was introduced in 1877 for use with the Lightning Model revolver and was later used in a number of U.S. Navy revolvers. This weapon was useful at short range and had good stopping power (Barnes 2006:329). Eight cartridges or bullets for the .45 Colt made by Winchester Repeating Arms and Union Metallic Cartridge were also in this collection. The single-action .45 Colt revolver was introduced in 1873 as the “Peacemaker” and was adopted by the U.S. Army in 1875 and used until 1892. Variations of the .45 Colt, specifically the 1911 automatic, remain among the most popular handguns in the United States (Barnes 2006:311). Other identified cartridges were a .44-caliber centerfire without a headstamp and a .22 short round made by Winchester Repeating Arms. The .22 short (1857–present) is one of the longest-continuously produced cartridges in the United States (Barnes 2006:476). Shotgun shells in this collection included 3 12-gauge and 9 10-gauge shells. The 12-gauge shotgun shell is the most versatile, popular, and varied in loading of any shotgun shell. This cartridge was designed for self-defense and hunting and has law-enforcement and military applications (Barnes 2006:500). The 10-gauge shell was historically more useful for fowl hunting than the 12-gauge because it contains a larger quantity of shot. Although the 10-gauge continues to be produced in the United States today, it has nevertheless become somewhat obsolete for hunting with improvements to the 12-gauge shell (Barnes 2006:499). All identified shotgun shells in Privy Pit 22355 were made by Winchester Repeating Arms. The only commerce-related artifact found in this block/lot was part of a balance scale with one pan still in place; it was recovered from Stratum IV of Privy Pit 22355. Seven transportation-related artifacts were identified in Privy Pit 22355. These included two horseshoes, two harness buckles, a harness ring, and a brake pedal or clutch to an automobile or farm machine in Stratum I. Half a horseshoe was recovered from Stratum II. Privy Pit 22355 contained 588 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts. Of the 10 stratigraphic units in this feature, construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered from 7 strata and were concentrated in the uppermost 4 strata. Very few artifacts of this type were identified in Strata V–X, and 99 percent (n = 580) of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered from Strata I–IV. The overall density of construction-materials artifacts in Privy Pit 22355 was 8.75 per cubic foot (0.25/m³). Stratum I contained 106 artifacts and had a density of 10.32 per cubic foot (0.29/m³). A total of 159 artifacts were recovered from Stratum II, which had a density of 30.34 per cubic foot (0.86/ m³). Stratum III had the most construction-materials artifacts (n = 277) and the highest artifact density (31.62/cubic foot or 0.89/m³). Stratum IV contained 33 construction-materials artifacts and had a density of 3.69 per cubic foot (0.10/m³). When combined, Strata I–IV had a density of 17.31 per cubic foot (0.48/ m³). This contrasts with the 8 artifacts recovered from Strata V–X, which had a combined artifact density of 0.25 per cubic foot (0.007/m³). The preponderance of construction-materials artifacts in the upper half of this feature may be explained by filling activities conducted after the privy was no longer in use. While the privy was being used, it was the site of human-waste disposal and occasional domestic-refuse deposition. When the privy was no longer in use, architectural-debris-laden sediments were dumped into the privy shaft to fill the depression, or because it was a convenient receptacle. Nails and nail fragments (n = 469) composed 80 percent of construction-materials artifacts in Privy Pit 22355. Complete wire nails that could be identified (n = 120) were 3d (n = 13), 4d (n = 27), 5d (n = 27), 6d (n = 16), 8d (n = 18), 9d (n = 3), 10d (n = 5), 12d (n = 1), and 20d (n = 3) common nails. Three roofing tacks and 2 carpet tacks were also unidentified. Washers used for tar-paper installation (n = 31) and windowglass fragments (n = 22) were the next-most-common construction-materials artifact type. Other hardware included 4 bolts, a hook, a fragment of opaque-glass tile, screen-mesh fragments (n = 11), the metal fitting to a doorknob, and metal-strap fragments. Electrical artifacts were composed of 18 wire fragments and a zinc battery-core rod. Tools recovered from this feature included the remains of a paintbrush with greenpaint-covered bristles, a blunt-ended file, fragments of the blade of a keyhole saw, and a flat-head screwdriver. Part of the graphite core from a dry-cell battery and 12 colorless shards of lamp-chimney glass were recovered from excavations in Privy Pit 22355. One of the glass shards from near the rim of the chimney was decorated with 3 cut or etched, parallel, horizontal lines. Privy Pit 22355 contained a range of vertebrate faunal taxa (Table 7). Eggshell was present in all strata but Stratum IV and was present in strata that yielded no chicken bone or bone from chicken-sized birds. Beef bone consisted largely of bones from the upper limbs, ribs, vertebrae, and scapula, with only a few bones 97 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest from the lower-leg or shank regions. Mutton or lamb cuts were also concentrated in the axial region. Pork bone consisted of a few lower-leg and foot bones, including a tibia and fibula that were probably part of the same meat unit, as is found in a ham or pork hock. In Stratum I, a few bones from chickens and chicken-sized birds were recovered, but far more bones were identified as belonging to mourning and white-wing doves, rock doves or domestic pigeons, and doveor quail-sized birds. Bones from black-tailed jackrabbits, indeterminate leporids, and rabbit-sized taxa were also present. Cow bone and bone from cow-sized taxa were recovered in slightly higher frequencies than bone from sheep-sized mammals. A few wood-rat bones and bones of a similarly sized mammal were recovered in this stratum. These last likely represent a rodent pest disposed of in the privy. The diversity of identified taxa from Stratum II of Privy Pit 22355 was lower than that of Stratum I. Faunal remains consisted primarily of bones from cow-sized mammals. A few bones from mourning doves, Zenaida doves, chickens, and sheep-sized mammals were also present. Compared to Stratum II, diversity increased slightly in Stratum III compared to Stratum II. Stratum III contained pig and sheep bone, as well as remains of indeterminate sheep-sized mammals. Together, the bones from this size class made up the highest proportion of fauna from this stratum. Bones of this general size class dominated the mammalian bone. Only a few bones were found from cow-sized mammals, and only a few bones of chickens or chicken-sized birds were recovered. A single goose bone was identified. The faunal material from Stratum IV consisted exclusively of bones from cow-sized and sheep-sized taxa. As with Stratum III, bones of cattle-sized taxa were outnumbered by those of sheep-sized mammals. Three-quarters of the bone belonged to sheep-sized mammals. Stratum V contained the only fish bones recovered from Privy Pit 22355. These were identifiable only as bony fish. Other taxa in this stratum included a few specimens each of mourning doves and rock doves, songbird-sized and chicken-sized birds, and rabbits or hares. Domesticated mammals made an appearance, with pigs and sheep-sized and cow-sized mammals represented. More than twice as many bird bones than mammal bones were recovered in Stratum VI. Most bird bones were identified as belonging to mourning doves. The remainder of bones were assigned to sheep-sized mammals and indeterminate mammals. No faunal material was recovered from Stratum VII. The majority of bone from Stratum VIII was assigned to the general category of chicken-sized birds. A few other bones were present, from pigs and from a cow-sized mammal. The faunal bone from Stratum IX consisted of only two bone fragments, one from a cow-sized mammal and the other from a sheep-sized mammal. Eggshell was also present. Finally, Stratum X produced only a few bone fragments. These included a few bones from sheep-, cow-, and mouse-sized mammals. Eggshell was also recovered. A few fragments (MNI = 1) of Pacific calico scallop (Argopecten ventricosus) were discovered in Stratum I of Privy Pit 22355 (Table 8). Of note, Stratum I was the only stratum identified in the privy pit that did not contain Pacific giant oyster remains. In terms of MNI, Privy Pit 22335 yielded low frequencies of Pacific giant oyster, with a single specimen each recovered from Strata II and III and two from Stratum IV. Higher frequencies of Pacific giant oyster fragments, however, were recovered from Strata II (NISP = 9) and III (NISP = 13), compared to Stratum IV (NISP = 2). In general, the privy pit was associated with residential use of the lot between ca. 1899 and the late 1910s, when the neighborhood had received sewer service and the privy building was remodeled. The latter portion of this occupation coincided with the establishment of the Pacific giant oyster industry on the West Coast, beginning around 1902, with production well established by the 1920s. The oysters were likely brought in by train from the West Coast. Nine plants identified from macrobotanical sampling were obtained from 5 of the 10 stratigraphic units of Privy Pit 22355. Seven of the identified species—elderberries, tomatillos, raspberries, grapes, dates, apples, and plums—were foods. Chronology, Correlation, and Summary Domestic refuse from archaeological features on Block 252, Lot 2, spanned the range of residential occupation (1900–1929). Because of the long production dates for many temporally diagnostic artifacts from this lot and the frequent turnover in residents, it was not possible to correlate domestic refuse with a single occupant. Several artifact types do have shorter production dates, including a canning jar, a beer bottle, and certain ceramics, but although they were found in middle and upper strata, they date to either before or 98 Chapter 7 • Block 252, Lot 2 during the first few years of occupations and, therefore, likely represent curated objects. Nevertheless, some observations can be made. Nearly all of the artifacts were most likely deposited in Privy Pit 22355 in a short period of time, based on overall artifact frequencies and the vertical distribution of ceramic artifacts. Stratigraphic units that contained most of the artifacts in this feature also contained ceramic fragments from matching sets. Sherds from two different tableware sets—a hand-painted Japanese set and a transfer-printed porcelain set—were recovered in Strata I–IV, and these four strata contained 87 percent of all artifacts in the entire feature. Artifacts of any type were somewhat rare in most levels below these. The identification of matching ceramic sherds throughout the upper half of this feature suggests that Privy Pit 22355 was filled with sediments containing domestic refuse in a short time period and that the deposition of domestic refuse was not common during the early use of the privy. Ceramic vessels represented by sherds on the lot were mostly utilitarian tablewares with minimal decoration. Unique in the collection, however, were fragments of at least one set of highly decorated Japanese table dishes. The fragments were distributed in various strata, and although they cannot be attributed to a particular household, they likely represent a family’s “special occasion” tableware. The vertical distribution of ceramic sherds from Privy Pit 22355 provided an insight into depositional behavior, suggesting that the feature was not always the site of domestic-refuse discard. A total of 138 sherds from 63 vessels were recovered from this feature. Diagnostic sherds were made between 1885 and 1896, although this lot was inhabited from 1889 to 1929. Sherds were primarily made from hardpaste porcelain (n = 65) and semivitreous, white-bodied earthenware (n = 57) and were recovered from 7 of the 10 stratigraphic units in this feature. Ceramic artifacts were concentrated in the upper 4 strata, and Stratum IV contained 36 percent (n = 50) of the privy’s ceramics. Below Stratum IV, only 9 sherds were recovered, which suggests a change in deposition behavior at this point in time, when the privy became a domestic-refuse receptacle. The trend toward using this feature for later domestic-refuse disposal was also reflected in other artifact categories. Glass and metal tablewares represented serviceable items common for the period and available through mail-order catalogs or from local merchants. Food and beverage containers indicated that fruits, vegetables, meats, condiments, and beverages available in national markets by the early-twentieth century were used. These containers were present in low numbers, however, potentially indicating that fresh (unpackaged) foods were routinely prepared by occupants or that off-site disposal was practiced for some refuse. Alcohol bottles were most prevalent in Strata III–V; unfortunately, these strata could not easily be assigned to a particular occupant. Types of alcohol consumed remained consistent over time, with similar amounts of beer, distilled spirits, and wine/champagne represented. Production dates for beer and spirits bottles from Block 252, Lot 2, indicate deposition by the earlier site occupants; no alcohol bottles dating from the Bowen or McKenzie tenures (1926–1929) were recovered. Both men’s and women’s clothing was represented in recovered artifacts; however, corsetry hardware was the most-numerous prevalent item in this artifact category. Because corsets were equipped with many fasteners of various types on a single garment, it was not possible to estimate the number of corsets that were represented here. Although Stratum IV yielded the bulk of corsetry hardware and silk-stocking fragments on this block and lot, these artifacts do not reveal tight production chronologies and could not be assigned to a particular residential occupation. Archival research indicated that at least one adult female resided in the house on Block 252, Lot 2, at all times from 1900 to 1929, with the exception of the year 1908. Footwear from this block and lot were nondiagnostic with regard to gender or production date. Personal artifacts emphasized female presence on the block/lot, with douche paraphernalia and beauty/cosmetic items common in the collection. The numerous toy fragments represented tea sets and dolls, which likely belonged to Margaret Ridgley; at ages 3 and 4, in 1917 and 1918, she lived on the lot with her parents. A single smoking-pipe stem from deep in the privy might be assigned to an early site occupant. Architectural debris composed the upper fill layers of Privy Pit 22355 and was probably introduced between 1914 and 1919, when the privy structure was remodeled, enlarged, and repurposed, perhaps as a garage or tool shed. Four of the upper strata of Privy Pit 22355 contained over half of the weaponry artifacts from the project area; these were various-caliber ammunitions that would have been used with a variety of firearms. Faunal remains in this feature included elements representing numerous wild game birds and rabbits, suggesting that a lot occupant participated in hunting for recreation or to supplement the family food budget. Frequent residential turnover on the lot during the latter years before the commercial period precludes assignment of this activity to a particular household. The privy yielded chicken, beef, mutton/lamb, pork, and eggshell. Fish bone was recovered only from Stratum V. Although recovered in small numbers, all but one strata in the privy yielded Pacific giant oyster shell, and Pacific calico scallop was retrieved from one stratum. 99 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest The amount of marine shell recovered from Privy Pit 22355 was relatively small, when compared with other privy pits uncovered on the Joint Courts Complex project area (see Table 8). The privy pit contained two types of edible-marine shell: Pacific calico scallop (MNI = 1) and Pacific giant oyster (MNI = 4). Despite the relatively low frequency, Stratum II of Privy Pit 22355 yielded the highest invertebrate density with respect to weight, totaling nearly 36 g per cubic foot. Presence of Pacific oyster shell in residential deposits from this block and lot is not surprising; the industry was introduced on the West Coast in 1902 and was well established by the 1920s. The amount of marine shell recovered from Privy Pit 22355 was relatively small when compared with other privy pits uncovered on the Joint Courts Complex project area (see Table 8). Elderberry and tomatillo are native to the Tucson Basin and were also ethnographically valued for their nutritional and medicinal aspects (Kay 1996:210, 246). Horse purslane in this feature was most likely naturally occurring on this lot. Charred Douglas fir fragments in this feature most likely represented fuels used within the household or discarded material culture. Throughout the 30-year residential period on this lot, household occupants were renters with tenures of 5 years or less. Use of the privy appears to have been consistent over time, between construction of the house ca. 1900 and the late 1910s when the building was repurposed, making definite assignment of strata difficult. The single-episode dog burial was similarly unattributed. No artifactual remains were identified that could be assigned with certainty to the restaurant, the nightclub, or the automobile enterprise that operated on the lot during the commercial period. 100 Chapter 7 • Block 252, Lot 2 Figure 34. Sophie Siewert (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 691). 101 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 35. Gouley Burcham (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. B87616) 102 Chapter 7 • Block 252, Lot 2 Figure 36. Privy Pit 22355 profile. 103 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 37. Soapstone griddle from Block 252, Lot 2, Feature 22355 (Inventory No. 080005BA9). 104 Chapter 7 • Block 252, Lot 2 Table 7. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 22355, Block 252, Lot 2 Stratum I Common Name NISP Stratum II % NISP Stratum III % NISP Stratum IV % NISP % Stratum V Stratum VI Stratum VIII % NISP Stratum IX NISP % NISP % NISP — 2 10 — — — % Stratum X NISP Total % NISP % — 2 1 Bony fish — — — Bean geese — — 1 1.6 — — — — — — 1 — 1 1.6 — — — — — — 2 — — — — 1 — — — 29 9 Domestic chicken 1 Zenaida doves — Mourning dove 13 Rock dove 0.8 1 1 1.6 — — — 10.8 4 6.5 — — 3 15 9 4 3.3 — — — 1 5 — — — — 5 2 White-winged dove 1 0.8 — 1 1.6 — — — — — — 2 1 Chicken-sized bird 3 2.5 1 3 4.7 — 1 — 14 — — 22 7 Quail- or dove-sized bird 1 0.8 — 1 1.6 — — — — — — 2 1 — — 2 — — — 3 1 4 Robin-sized bird — — Bird, size indeterminate — 3 White-winged dove — 1.6 4.8 5 10 1 64.3 7.1 90 8 12.5 — — — — — — 11 — 1 1.6 — — — — — — 1 Wood rat 1 0.8 — — — — — — — — 1 Squirrel-sized mammal 1 0.8 — — — — — — — — 1 Mouse-sized mammal — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — 2 1 1 Rabbit or hare 1 0.8 — — — 1 Black-tailed jack rabbit 8 6.7 — — — — — — — — 8 3 Rabbit-sized mammal 13 10.8 — — — — — — — — 13 4 Pig — — 1 — 2 — — — — 3 1 Cow 6 — — — — — 1 — — 7 2 Sheep — — 1 1.6 — — — — — — 1 Cow-sized mammal 37 30.8 42 67.7 6 9.4 6 25 5 25 — — 1 50 6 75 Sheep-/goat-sized mammal 30 25.0 4 6.5 20 31.3 18 75 3 15 3 21.4 1 1 50 1 12.5 Mammal, size indeterminate — 7 11.3 1 1.6 — — 1 7.1 — — 120 62 45 24 20 14 16 3 14 31 18 11 4 Total Eggshell 5.0 1.6 Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 105 5 12.5 10 5 5 103 33 81 26 — 9 2 2 8 311 14 95 106 1 Total 0.19 2 2 — NISP 0.08 0.8 0.8 100.0 100.0 Weight Weight (g) (%) Stratum I 0.19 1 — 1 MNI 1.72 9 — 9 NISP 34.85 182.6 182.6 Weight (g) Stratum II Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. 0.10 1 Pacific calico scallop Total density (per cubic foot) — MNI Giant Pacific oyster Common Name 100.0 100.0 Weight (%) 0.11 1 — 1 MNI 1.48 13 — 13 NISP 29.89 261.8 261.8 100.0 100.0 Weight Weight (g) (%) Stratum III 0.22 2 — 2 MNI Table 8. Unworked Invertebrate Remains Recovered from Privy Pit 22355, Block 252, Lot 2 0.22 2 — 2 NISP 4.14 37.0 37.0 100.0 100.0 Weight Weight (g) (%) Stratum IV Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest C hapter  8 Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 286 N. Stone Avenue Although John Brown (see Biographies) did not participate in the original auction of project area land in 1889, he had acquired a total of five lots in Block 252 from auction participants by August of the following year. These included Lots 3–5, 8, and 10. By 1897, Mr. Brown had also acquired Lot 9 from Fred Fleishman (see Biographies), creating what was, at over 3/4 acre, the single largest parcel within the project area. In 1899, when Brown’s daughter, Amelia, married Fred J. Steward, Brown split his six parcels in half, deeding the southern half to his wife, Dolores, and giving the northern half to his daughter, Amelia. On their half of the parcel, Amelia and Fred built a one-and-a-half-story house that was completed by 1901 (Sanborn 1901). The structure was located at 286 N. Stone Avenue and, at around 4,400 square feet, was by far the largest residence built on the project area (see Figure 22). The Stewards lived in this house until 1928, when they moved to what was then the east side of Tucson, into a house that is now part of the Sam Hughes historic neighborhood. Shortly after they moved, they sold 286 N. Stone Avenue and all of their project area holdings. After some legal wrangling, this land ended up in the hands of Tom Leverda and W. M. Watson. During the 9 years after the Stewards moved out, the residence appears to have been used as a rental property. Though often vacant, at least three separate heads of household were listed in the city directories during this time (see Appendix D). Ernest Ewing, a mining engineer, lived there between 1931 and 1933, followed by Joseph Brunner in 1934 and Mrs. C. L. Leonard in 1936. In 1937, the house became home to two businesses, Mrs. Alice Towne’s Curios and the Little Yarn Shop. A year later, it was appropriated by the New Deal and used to house offices for the Works Progress Administration and the National Youth Administration. Finally, the old Steward house was demolished. This mostly likely took place in late 1939 or early 1940, when the Baum and Adamson automotive store expanded south. A number of archaeological features were encountered during excavation that date to the residential period of these lots. Despite extensive disturbance, remains of the house foundation and basement were recovered (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building H). The household cesspit (Feature 10099) was also found, located along the southern boundary of the north half of Lot 4, approximately 15 feet from the back porch of the residence (see Figure 32). Two sewer lines connected to this feature. The first (Trench 10098) extended from the Steward house, and a second (Trench 10097) extended north from the John Brown residence at 270 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 9). So, it seems that the two related families were combining their resources and using the same cesspit. Similarly, there were no fences separating the two properties throughout their residential history (Sanborn 1901–1930). This is understandable until 1915, when John Brown died and the family moved out of 270 N. Stone Avenue. A single yard between two related households may have been preferable or more convenient. However, even following John’s death, these yards remained undivided. By contrast, a property line separating 286 N. Stone Avenue from the lot north of it had appeared by 1919 (Sanborn 1919). During the same period of time, the fence along the rear of Lots 3–5 was pushed eastward, toward Toole Avenue. This had the effect of adding Lot 8 and the west half of Lot 9 to the usable backyard space associated with 286 N. Stone Avenue. As might be expected, these realignments of fencing left their mark upon the land. Indeed, Lots 8 and 9 yielded evidence of approximately six separate fence lines (Figure 38). Four of these ran north-south, and two ran along Toole Avenue. These fence lines generally continued south into John 107 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Brown’s property. Additionally, there was a line of landscaping features that paralleled the westernmost fence. These latter features can be seen as a hedge row in Figure 14. Aside from fence remains, there were a few other yard features identified whose function can be inferred. Landscaping Feature 381 (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions) was most likely the pit for a mulberry tree that is visible on the right-hand side of Figure 22, in the front yard of 286 N. Stone Avenue. Posthole 376 may have represented the hitching post visible in the center of the same image. Postholes 379 and 380 may have been used to support a utility pole and its replacement. There were also three probable tree pits located on the south side of the house: Landscaping Features 5404, 5406, and 5408. They were located almost directly between the residential structures at 270 and 286 N. Stone Avenue, as depicted on the Sanborn fire insurance maps (Sanborn 1901–1930). Pit 5401 may also have been related to the residential occupation of these lots, although its function remains unclear. Commercial History: 286 and 296 N. Stone Avenue As noted above, the commercial period for these lots began in 1937, with the introduction of Mrs. Alice Towne’s Curios and the Little Yarn Shop. These shops used the existing structure of 286 N. Stone Avenue, as did the Works Progress Administration and the National Youth Administration the following year (Sanborn 1930 and 1947). However, around 1940, Baum and Adamson expanded their building south and razed the Steward residence (see Commercial Enterprises). Once these lots belonged to Baum and Adamson, they would be associated with that company or its buildings until the final structure was razed immediately prior to the Joint Courts Complex project. These buildings included the 1940 expansion, as well as a number of other remodeling episodes. Eventually, in 1979, Baum and Adamson closed its doors. For the next several years, the building would continue to be used for various automotive-repair businesses. However, by the early 1990s, it was taken over by the Coconuts nightclub (O’Mack 2005), the final business to occupy these lots. The commercial period was represented by a number of archaeological features. The feature descriptions for Buildings M and O (see Figure 32) provide a detailed look at these remains, which included concrete slabs and foundations. Building O can be found in the Archaeological Feature Descriptions for Lot 1 of this block. Building M, which was built against the northern wall of Building N (see Chapter 9), first appeared on the 1947 Sanborn map as an automobile-repair facility. Both Buildings M and N, the latter of which was originally associated with the Bowyer Motor Company, would eventually be incorporated into Building O. There were several other features most likely associated with this period (see Figure 32). These included Trench 10096 and five pits (Features 5398–5400, 5402, and 5403) that appeared to be in alignment and likely represented part of some structure associated with Baum and Adamson, such as support beams for an awning. Biographies Fleishman For a biography of Fred Fleishman, see Chapter 9. Brown and Steward For biographies of John Brown and Fred Steward, see Chapter 9. 108 Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) Commercial Enterprises Baum and Adamson For an account of Baum and Adamson, see Chapter 6. Architectural Descriptions 286 N. Stone Avenue, Fred and Amelia Steward (Building H) This one-and-a-half-story, single-family dwelling was Folk Victorian in style. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn maps (1901–1930) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 33, 53, 54, and 55]; see Figures 22, 14, and 15). Oriented west-east, the main entrance faced west onto North Stone Avenue. This irregular-in-plan residence was constructed of brick and wood; the first story was of brick and mortar, and the half story was wood-framed. The moderately pitched, wood-framed, hipped roof had crossed gables and moderately overhanging eaves and was clad in wood shingles. A stovepipe extended from the northern side of the house. A bay, likely with windows, was centered on the southern facade. The front of the residence had a full-facade, wood-framed porch. It had a shed roof, was sheathed in wood shingles, and had coupled spindlework posts and a balustrade. Access was provided to the front porch by a set of central steps. Lattice flanked the steps and blocked access to the subfloor. Above the front porch was a smaller second-story porch, centered under the gable. This porch had identical, but smaller, spindlework posts. The front facade of the front gable was clad in scalloped shingles in a fish-scale pattern. A framed vent or window was centered on the gable end. On the east facade (rear), there was a wood-framed porch with a woodshingled roof. To the north of the upstairs porch, and perhaps to the south as well, was a rooftop cupola or ventilator centered on the ridgeline and topped with a round finial. Square in plan, it had a pyramidal roof clad in wood shingles with moderately overhanging eaves. On both the west and north facades were openings for either vents or windows. The front facade of the building had decorative detailing. 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson (Buildings L and O) For a description of 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, see Chapter 6. 24–28 Toole Avenue, Gouley Burcham Company (Building X) For a description of 24–28 Toole Avenue, see Chapter 7. Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building H (286 N. Stone Avenue, Fred and Amelia Steward) Building H (see Figure 32) was an east-west-oriented residential structure encountered during mechanical stripping of the project area. The structure’s archaeological remains were composed of three primary component features that measured roughly 56 by 25 feet in combined surface area. The structure’s foundation (Feature 5405) was built of adobe and stone. It was mechanically excavated and consisted of three walls on the north, west, and south sides of the building. Additional details were difficult to determine because of the fragmentary nature of the foundation. The northern wall was intruded on 109 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest by a concrete slab (Feature 288) probably associated with a later automobile-service shop. Similarly, another concrete slab (Feature 286) was located approximately 1 foot south of Foundation 5405 and adjacent to the end of the western wall. Information depicted on Sanborn maps (1901–1930) indicates that Foundation 5405 represented only the eastern half of the original foundation. The western half was destroyed by a later building represented by a north-south-running concrete foundation. This foundation (Feature 10074) ran between Foundation 5405 and Feature 10895—the basement for Building H—effectively dividing the original structure in half. Basement 10895 was oriented north-south and measured 23 by 13 feet; it was located beneath the easternmost extent of Building H and was mechanically excavated. The ashy fill of the basement contained large quantities of glass bottles and green ceramic tiles, as well as other refuse postdating the use of the residence. Rubble fill was identified around the exterior of each wall, possibly used as a stabilizing element. In the middle of the dirt floor was a concrete slab (no feature number) covering a brick-lined feature that may represent the location of a basement furnace. The southern end of Basement 10895 was intruded on by two other concrete slabs (Features 10899 and 10900) that were both probably associated with a later automobile-repair center. The composition of the basement walls was not uniform. The south and east walls were composed of 3–4 courses of stone masonry, with smaller stones used as chinking, and were probably part of the house foundation. The north and west walls of the basement were made of 7–10 courses of brick and probably represented internal basement walls. Architectural analysis (see above) does not indicate more than one building episode, though the fact that the brick walls abutted the masonry in the southwest and northeast corners indicates that they were constructed after the foundation. By contrast, they were bonded together in the northwest corner, indicating simultaneous construction. The stairwell for the basement (Feature 28347) was located along the southernmost extent of the basement’s eastern wall. It was oriented east-west and measured approximately 6 by 4 feet, with a maximum height of 21/2 feet. Both its north and south walls were made of brick, with a maximum of 12 courses. The walls abutted the stone masonry of the east and south walls of the basement, respectively. No remains of the risers were recovered, but a dirt surface sloped down from the entrance to the floor of the basement. Like the other two component features, Stairwell 28347 was mechanically excavated. Building M (294 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) Building M was represented by three poured-concrete foundations (Features 10088, 10089, and 10091) and an adjoining concrete pad (Feature 286). A map of the archaeological remains of the structure can be viewed in Figure 32. They were oriented east-west and measured approximately 123 by 32 feet in overall dimensions. Foundation 10091 corresponded with the location of the southeast corner of a small, rectangular automobile-repair facility, oriented east-west. It is shown on the 1947 Sanborn map, adjacent to a larger, square repair facility on its south side (Building N) (see Chapter 9). The extant remains included the entire 28-footlong eastern wall, as well as an amorphous mass (measuring almost 22 feet long) where the south wall of Building M and the north wall of Building N abutted. Foundation 10088 was a small (51/2-foot-long, 3-footwide) section of the south wall of Building M. Foundation 10089 measured 27 feet long and probably represented an interior support element. Feature 286 was a rectangular, east-west-oriented, concrete pad with an extant length of just over 41 feet and a width of 22 feet. The purpose of the feature remains unknown, though it was poured directly adjacent to the position of the western wall of Building M, as inferred from the 1947 Sanborn map. It may have represented a parking area or driveway. A circular pit with an associated metal pipe (Feature 287) intruded on the concrete pad (Feature 286) near its southwest corner. One of the foundations (Feature 10091) abutted another north-south-running foundation associated with Building N (Feature 17545), as well as a concrete pier (Feature 10883) that adjoined them both (Figure 39; see Figure 38 and Chapter 9). Foundation 10091 also abutted a hydraulic hoist (Feature 10090) associated with Building O, which appeared intrusive to it. Concrete Pad 286 appeared to have intruded on Building H, removing the southern portion of the foundation (Feature 5405). Parts of Building M were superimposed upon a large number of other features. The concrete pad (Feature 286) was poured over five landscaping features interpreted as tree pits (Features 5398, 5403, 5404, 5406, and 5408). One of the concrete foundations (Feature 10089) was superimposed on two trenches 110 Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) (Features 10096 and 10097). The footprint of the building was also superimposed on a trench (Feature 10098), a cesspit (Feature 10099), and the basement of Building H (Feature 10895). In all of these cases, any disturbance to the underlying feature was in the uppermost fill and was minimal. Building O (294–296 North Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) For a description of Building O, see Chapter 6. Cesspit 10099 Feature 10099 was a cesspit first identified during mechanical stripping. In plan view, the feature was a north-south-oriented, semicircular pit measuring about 5 feet in diameter. It was mechanically excavated in 1-m levels. Excavation was halted at a depth of 19 feet because of the physical limitations of the backhoe. However, its location (over 50 feet from the nearest grave-pit feature) indicates that it was outside the cemetery boundary and did not disturb human remains. The quantity of artifacts recovered from this feature suggested that the pit was either open or in some other way accessible from the surface, as through a trap door or a privy seat, for the dumping of refuse or other waste. However, two pipe trenches led into the west edge of the feature, suggesting that it was used as a cesspit. The first trench (Feature 10097) contained a concrete pipe that extended 18 feet from the direction of Building G (270 N. Stone Avenue on Sanborn maps for 1901–1930), though it did not connect with the structure. Similarly, a trench with an iron pipe (Feature 10098) extended 101/2 feet from the direction of Building H (286 N. Stone Avenue on Sanborn maps for 1901–1930) toward Cesspit 10099 but did not connect with that building. Landscaping Feature 381 A large, round tree pit (Landscaping Feature 381) was identified during mechanical stripping and may have represented the mulberry tree discussed in the lot history. It measured 13 by 12 feet and was 20 inches deep. The feature intruded into the east end of Grave Pit 700. Feature fill was an interleaved amalgam of several fill types, grading from dark-gray fill containing artifacts to a culturally sterile mix of orange sand and caliche. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Excavation proceeded first with a 1-by-2-m test unit spanning the junction of Features 381 and 700. The rest of the tree pit was then excavated as a single unit in which human bone from Grave Pit 700 was recovered. Despite the circular nature and the large size of the feature, it was clear—from the lack of prehistoric artifacts, the presence of historical-period artifacts, the human remains from Grave Pit 700, and the highly irregular cross section— that it was not a prehistoric pit house. Landscaping Feature 5404 A cylindrical tree pit (Landscaping Feature 5404) was identified during mechanical stripping. It measured about 20 inches in diameter and 9 inches deep. The fill was a sandy clay loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was bisected, and the north half was excavated in a single level. This excavation determined that the fill of the feature was divided into two strata. The upper fill contained ash and a small amount of glass and faunal bone. The lower fill did not contain cultural materials. A concrete slab (Feature 286) was superimposed on this feature. Landscaping Feature 5406 A circular pit (Landscaping Feature 5406) was identified during mechanical stripping. It measured approximately 20 inches in diameter and 71/2 inches deep. The fill was divided into two strata, consisting of an ashy 111 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest layer on top of sterile sandy clay loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was bisected, and the northern half was excavated. Faunal bone was recovered. Pit 5401 A northeast-southwest-oriented, subrectangular pit (Feature 5401) was identified during mechanical stripping. It measured 62 by 20 inches and was 14 inches deep. Because of its plan-view shape, the feature was treated as a grave-pit feature and excavated in a single level. The internal structure of the feature and its lack of grave-related materials led to reinterpretation as a postcemetery pit. The structure of the feature was somewhat irregular. The western half was defined by a shallow, sloping base that dropped off into a deeper eastern half with vertical walls. Though the base of the eastern half tended to be level, there was up to 6 inches of variability in some of the deeper areas. The feature fill was silty loam that graded from compact near the top of the feature to less compact near the bottom. No artifacts were encountered. Feature 5401 may have been disturbed by another pit (Feature 5400). Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Block 252, Lot 3 The artifact collection from this lot did not include examples in the following categories: clothing/clothing fasteners, recreation, communication, commerce, household items, invertebrate remains, or macrobotanical remains. A small ceramics collection was recovered from Basement 10895 (n = 9; MVC = 4). This collection included the remains of a semivitreous-earthenware plate with a gilded decoration on the rim and a nonvitreous-earthenware bowl, both of which were relief molded. A Japanese hardpaste-porcelain pitcher with a hand-painted floral motif was also recovered. The base of this pitcher had a Japanese maker’s mark in Kanji characters (Figure 40). A sample from Basement Feature 10895 yielded vessels and fragments representing a minimum of 10 food/beverage containers, including 4 bottles and 6 jars. Three bottle/jar closures were also represented. The majority of food/beverage glass from this lot was machine-made. Jars were the most prevalent type of food vessel present, though contents could not be identified. The majority of bottle contents remain unidentified. Of note, a 12-ounce Hires’ root-beer bottle was produced in 1937 by Owens Illinois Glass Corporation (Lockhart, personal communication 2009). By that date, Hires was marketing ready-to-drink root beer in bottles (Dr. Pepper Snapple Group 2010). Jar contents remain unidentified. At least 4 commercially packed jars were found. The Pacific Coast Glass Company produced 1 of these jar types between 1925 and 1930, and Glass Containers Inc. produced 1 of these jar types as early as 1933 (Toulouse 1971:414, 220). Some canning activity was present in the household, as evidenced by two “Safety Valve” canning jars produced between 1895 and 1930 (Toulouse 1969:270). Temporally diagnostic food and beverage containers from this feature indicate deposition between 1895 and 1937. A total of 23 alcohol bottles and shards from at least 19 vessels were recovered from Basement 10895. Thirty-nine percent (n = 9) of alcohol bottles on this lot were from beer bottles, and 61 percent (n = 14) were from distilled spirits; no wine‑ or champagne-bottle fragments were identified. Most bottles collected from this feature had marks dating from the first quarter of the twentieth century. Datable bottles included a beer bottle made by the Obear-Nester Glass Company (1915–1980), a beer bottle made by the Knox Bottle Glass Company (1924–1968), and a spirits bottle made by the Maywood Glass Company (1930–1961) (Whitten 2009). Four complete spirits bottles made by Owens-Illinois had coded dates referencing the specific years of manufacture (1936, 1937, and 1938) (Lockhart 2006a:23). Thirteen of the alcohol bottles on this lot were embossed “Federal Law Prohibits Sale or Re-Use of this Bottle”, a mark used between 1933 and 1964, including 8 Hiram Walker gin bottles in this feature (Busch 2000:183). All bottles from this feature were machine manufactured. The sample from Basement Feature 10895 yielded personal artifacts consisting of a bottle that held “Frostilla,” a fragrant lotion (Fike 2006:139). Frostilla was introduced in 1878 (U.S. Patent and Trademark database). According to the New York Times (NYT 7 November 1949:41), Frostilla was bought out by Wildroot 112 Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) Company in 1949. A Bakelite threaded cap was attached. A single medicine-related glass artifact was recovered from a sample of Basement 10895. The artifact was a complete graduated medicine bottle made by Owens-Illinois (1929–present) (Whitten 2009). A total of 19 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered during the sampling of Basement 10895. Ceramic utility insulators and insulator fragments (n = 15) composed the bulk of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts. Nine of these insulators were complete, and four of these were Rockingham glazed. Seven of the electrical insulators and insulator fragments also had manufacturer’s marks. Three of the insulators in this feature were made by Brunt Porcelain Works or Brunt Porcelain Company. This East Liverpool, Ohio, company started in 1850 and was sold a number of times between 1895 and 1921, eventually going out of business in 1925 (Gish 2009a). Another complete insulator was made by the Knox Porcelain Corporation (1923–1975) (Gish 2009a). The remains of at least 1, possibly 2, insulators made by the Akron Insulator and Marble Company (1894–1904) were also recovered from this feature (Gish 2009a). Other construction-materials artifacts included 2 olive-green flooring-tile fragments (1 with an ornate, curvilinear decoration), and a metal water-pipe fragment. The sample of Basement Feature 10895 produced six partial and nine whole ceramic insulators, most with Rockingham glaze. Three were stamped with the word “BRUNT”, one was marked “STANDARD/AKRON. O . . .”, two were marked “A. I. & M. CO.”, one was marked “6061 / Knox”, two were marked “I V”, and one was marked with the letter “T”. The Brunt Porcelain Company began to produce electrical porcelain in the 1890s, and the Akron Insulator & Marble Company (A. I. & M. CO.) of Akron, Ohio, produced electrical porcelain marked with the word “STANDARD” from 1894 to 1904 (Gish 2009b). The Knox Porcelain Corporation of Knoxville, Tennessee, produced electrical porcelain between 1923 and 1975 (Gish 2009b). Finally, a single bone was recovered from Basement Feature 10895. This was an unburned cow-radius fragment. It was sawed at one end and consisted of the midsection only. To summarize the artifact analysis for Block 252, Lot 3, diagnostic artifacts from Basement 10895 included a number of items that dated to the residential period. Although few ceramic artifacts were recovered from the lot, they represented highly decorative tablewares. Ceramics can be informative with regard to economic status, and these indicate that the Stewards had disposable income. Olive-green flooring-tile fragments (one ornate) were the only artifacts found that might have suggested the interior appearance of the Steward’s home. The single datable personal artifact from this feature was a perfumed-lotion bottle that spanned the residential period and could not be attributed to a particular occupant. Very little could be interpreted concerning dietary behavior from the isolated cow-bone fragment. Block 252, Lot 4a No artifacts were recovered from Block 252, Lot 4a, that represented the following artifact categories: communications and floral remains. Approximately 20 percent (n = 360) of artifacts from Cesspit 10099 were ceramic sherds, primarily from at least 125 tableware vessels. Hardpaste porcelain (n = 186; MVC = 64) and semivitreous, white-bodied earthenware (n = 105; MVC = 35) dominated the ceramic collection, composing about 81 percent of all sherds in this feature. Nonvitreous, vitreous, and coarse-earthenware, stoneware, and yellowware fragments were also present, but in much lower quantities. Plate and saucer sherds composed about 52 vessels and were about 32 percent of all ceramic fragments. Sherds from about 11 bowls, 15 handled cups, 3 pitchers, and a teapot were also identified. A total of 102 sherds were from unidentified vessel forms. Countries of origin and dates of manufacture were revealed by makers’ marks on European and domestic ceramic sherds recovered from five of the six stratigraphic units of Cesspit 10099 (Table 9). The presence of similar ceramics in multiple strata indicates that the feature was a place of random deposition of vessels as they broke, throughout a long period of time. Sherds from Zeh, Scherzer, and Company’s “Orleans” line were present in Levels 2 and 4–6, suggesting these vessels were used on this lot throughout the residency of the Brown family and their daughter, Amelia, and her husband, Fred Steward. These families owned and resided on this lot between 1889 and 1928. Country of origin was also inferred based on the body paste and decoration identified on other ceramic sherds. Mexican coarse-earthenware sherds were recovered from Levels 2 and 3. Level 2 had the remains of a red-bodied, coarse-earthenware vessel with white and black enameled decoration that was most likely from southern or central Mexico. Several other Mexican red-bodied earthenware sherds with slip or enamel decoration were also recovered from Level 2, including some that were blackened from use over a cooking fire. Level 3 yielded Mexican gray-bodied earthenware fragments 113 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest from an unidentified vessel. Japanese hardpaste, hand-painted porcelain sherds from a similar set were recovered from Levels 4 and 5. A total of 78 (MVC = 28) nonceramic-tableware and culinary artifacts were recovered from Cesspit 10099. These were recovered from all six stratigraphic units, but the lowermost strata (Levels 4–6) yielded 88 percent of nonceramic tablewares. Ninety-seven percent (n = 76) of tablewares were glass artifacts. A knife handle and a fragment from a knife blade were the only identified metal culinary items. Glass tumblers in this feature (MVC = 14) were decorated with etching (MVC = 6), a pressed geometric design (MVC = 2), and embossing (MVC = 2). Etching included curvilinear and floral motifs. Molded decorations were vertical and horizontal ribbing. Fragments from a wine glass and a small cordial glass were also identified. The remains of 2 colorless decorative dishes were decorated with geometric molding and floral motifs. Other glass tableware artifacts (n = 35; MVC = 4) included a pitcher handle, the remains of a different pitcher, and 2 unidentified decorated vessels. Cesspit 10099 held a minimum of 36 food/beverage containers, as whole vessels and fragments, representing 25 bottles, 3 jars, and 8 cans. Four bottle/jar closures were also represented. Food/beverage containers and bottle/jar closures were recovered from all six stratigraphic layers. Level 2 had the widest variety of glass vessel types and closures. Of those vessels with identifiable technology, hand-finished (36 percent, n = 10) made up the majority. Bottles were distributed among all six stratigraphic layers. Evidence of at least 3 unidentified-food, 2 food-supplement, 3 unidentified-beverage, and 2 condiment bottles were noted; the remainder of the contents are unidentified. The food supplement was identified as Mellin’s Food, a formula for “Infants and Invalids” that was made by Doliber-Goodale Company as early as about 1887. The company touted this product as “the only perfect substitute for Mother’s Milk” (Rouse-Ostrander et al. 2001:158). In 1897, Sears, Roebuck, and Company sold small bottles of Mellin’s Food for 35 cents and large bottles for 60 cents (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]). A Lea & Perrins’ Worcestershire sauce bottle produced by John Duncan’s Sons after 1880 (Switzer 1974:79) was found. The Sears catalog for 1897 sold this product in different sizes for as little as 8 cents and as much as 25 cents (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]). The 4 crown caps were found in Level 2, and jars were recovered from the first two and last two stratigraphic layers. The majority of jar contents could not be identified. One cheese jar was embossed “MacLaren Imperial Cheese Co. Ltd.”, dating between 1891 and 1921 (Zumwalt 1980:294). Some homecanning consumption was taking place in the household, as evidenced by a Hero Fruit Jar Company lid liner (1884–1904 [Toulouse 1971:249]) from Level 6. Cans were present in all stratigraphic layers but Level 1, but contents remain unidentified. Sanitary cans and key openers were present. Some food cans, such as meat and coffee, utilized this kind of opening. Although some of the artifacts recovered from this feature entered production as early as 1880, long before this lot was occupied, temporally diagnostic food and beverage containers indicate deposition between the initial occupation of the lot and 1921. Cesspit 10099 yielded a total of 83 alcohol-related artifacts from 31 bottles. Alcohol glass was identified in all strata of this feature. Throughout the cesspit, wine‑ and champagne-bottle shards were the most prevalent type, composing 49 percent (n = 41; MVC = 17) of all alcohol-related artifacts. Distilled-spiritsbottle shards composed 39 percent (n = 32; MVC = 8), and beer-bottle fragments were 12 percent (n = 10; MVC = 6). Ninety percent (n = 75) of alcohol-related-bottle shards were recovered from Levels 2–4, which had a combined artifact density of 0.82 per cubic foot (0.02/m³). Level 2 had an artifact density of 1.27 per cubic foot (0.04/m³) and yielded 47 percent (n = 39; MVC = 7) of all bottle fragments, which was the greatest frequency and density of alcohol-bottle artifacts in this feature. Levels 3 and 4 contained 19 percent (n = 16; MVC = 7) and 24 percent (n = 20; MVC = 10), respectively. Only 10 percent (n = 8) of the alcohol-related artifacts, shards from at least 7 bottles, were recovered from the remaining three levels. Datable alcohol bottles and fragments were found in Levels 1, 2, and 4. Date ranges vary throughout the deposit, but all datable artifacts were made between 1882 and 1930. Beer bottles made by the Adolphus Busch Company (1886–1925) and Nuttall and Company (before 1913) were recovered from Levels 1 and 2 (Whitten 2009). In Level 4, a beer bottle most likely made by the Wightman Glass Company (1900–1930) and a bottle from the Duffy Malt Whiskey Company of Rochester, New York (1886–1917), were identified (Edwards 1967:25; Toulouse 1971:538; Wilson and Wilson 1968:63). Duffy’s Pure Malt Whiskey was marketed as a cure-all, with one late-1880s advertisement reading: Cures DYSPEPSIA AND INDIGESTION . . . Price One Dollar per Bottle . . . CURES MALARIA . . . is found to contain No TRACE OF FUSEL OIL OR ADULTERATION . . . CURES HABITUAL DRUNKENNESS . . . is the only PURE STIMULANT for AGED PEOPLE, and WEAK and DEBILITATED WOMEN . . . is an absolute Cure of 114 Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) CONSUMPTION, HEMORRHAGES, and all WASTING DISEASES . . . is the only PURE STIMULANT for the sick, INVALIDS and CONVALESCING PATIENTS . . . is prescribed by all PHYSICIANS; and is in use by all HOSPITALS, CURATIVE INSTITUTIONS and INFIRMARIES [Woods 1886, cited in Schultz et al. 1980:28]. Cesspit 10099 yielded clothing fasteners and fabric, the bulk of which were recovered from Level 4. The majority of clothing fasteners consisted of undecorated buttons, followed by corsetry hardware. Men’s, women’s, and babies’ clothing was indicated. Buttons consisted entirely of sew-through types; sizes suggest lingerie, shirts, dresses, and vests. Recovered from all sampled strata, eyelets represented the corsetry hardware, along with a small cinch buckle. Small brass buckles from garters/hosiery were also recovered from all sampled strata, and snaps and a large safety pin were present in Levels 4 and 5, respectively. Recovered fabrics included cotton, synthetic, and an unknown fabric type. Black, finely woven cotton stocking fragments were found in Levels 3 and 5, and nylon shoelace fragments were recovered from Level 5. Cesspit 10099 produced more than 80 shoe fragments. These represented at least 2 leather shoes for which original color could not be determined: 1 man’s boot and 1 shoe belonging to a woman or a child, both with stacked-leather heels. Part of the turned-leather sole from a left shoe also was recovered and may or may not have been associated with either the boot or the smaller shoe. Most of the shoe fragments were recovered from Levels 5 and 6. Cesspit 10099 produced numerous personal artifacts, with items in the health/hygiene category being the most prevalent. A toothpaste bottle embossed “RUBIFOAM/FOR THE/TEETH/PUT UP BY/E.W.HOYT & CO/LOWELL, MASS” was present and indicated a deposit date between 1887 and 1920 (Hoyt and Hoyt 2009). Rubifoam was advertised in the Sears catalog for 1897, selling for 20 cents (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]:50). A Vaseline product and nonvitreous toothpaste-pot and ‑lid sherds were recovered from this feature. One amber and one colorless, the jars were embossed “CHESEBROUH MFG CO./ VASELINE” and “VASELINE/CHESEBROUGH/NEW YORK”, respectively, indicating deposit dates between 1880 and 1955 (Fike 2006:56). The nonvitreous ceramic pot and lid sherds were transfer printed “[ORIENTAL TOO]TH PASTE/[FOR]/[CLEANSING BEA]UTIFYING/[AND PRESERVING THE] TEETH AND GUMS/[PREPA]RED BY/[JEWSBUR]Y & BROWN/[ARDWI]CK GREEN/[MANCHES] TER ENGLAND”. Similar containers of Jewsbury and Brown’s Paste were sold for 45 cents in the Sears catalog for 1897 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]:50). The metal hot-water-bottle clamp was associated with the rubber tubing and used for a hot-water bottle in conjunction with fountain syringes for douching/enemas. A bone toothbrush handle was also observed. Additional health and beauty aids included a perfume bottle embossed “RICKSECKER/PERFUMER/NEW YORK” (Fike 2006:178), shards of a shoepolish bottle produced by Whittemore (MVC = 1), and bottle (MVC = 1) and milk-glass-jar shards (MVC = 2). Based on inconclusive research on Internet auction websites, the Ricksecker Perfume Company was in business from at least 1884 to 1922. A ferrous shoe-horn fragment and fragments of at least two wooden thread spools were also recovered. Cesspit 10099 yielded 95 medicine-related glass artifacts (MVC = 68). Medicinal glass in this feature included complete bottles, bottle fragments and caps, and test tubes or ampoules. About 56 percent (n = 53; MVC = 39) of these artifacts in this feature had hand-tooled finishes, and 44 percent (n = 42; MVC = 29) were completely machine-made or unidentified. Medicinal glass was found in all six stratigraphic layers of this feature. Although the density of medicinal glass throughout this feature was only 0.46 per cubic foot (0.013/m³), these artifacts were most dense and frequent in Levels 4 through 6. These three levels contained 81 percent (n = 77; MVC = 54) of medicine-related glass in this feature and had a density of 1.09 per cubic foot (0.031/m³). Level 5 had 42 percent (n = 40; MVC = 31) of medicinal glass in this feature and had a density of 1 per cubic foot (0.028/m³). Datable medicinal bottles and fragments were identified in five of the six stratigraphic levels of Cesspit 10099. These vessels are summarized in Table 10. Proprietary medicines in this feature were advertised to treat internal ailments, specifically gastrointestinal illnesses. Proprietary medicines were recovered from all of the stratigraphic units that contained medicine bottles, but medicines compounded by local pharmacists were concentrated in the lower levels (see Table 10). Although patent and proprietary medicines composed the majority of medicine bottles in Cesspit 10099, a few bottles made for pharmacists were also identified. Bottles made for Tucson’s Arcadian Pharmacy and the Fleishman Pharmacy indicate products from these businesses found their way to the Joint Courts Complex project area. The presence of proprietary medicines in stratigraphic levels that also contained professionally compounded medicines suggests residents of this property took a heterogeneous approach 115 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest to health care. They took advantage of widely available proprietary remedies but also sought professional help from a local pharmacist. Cesspit 10099 produced part of a handle from a child’s porcelain teacup and two sherds from small porcelain saucers, one with relief molding on the interior surface. Five kaolin pipe fragments were recovered from Cesspit 10099. Excavators recovered a piece of the pipe bowl from Level 2, a stem fragment from Level 4, and two stem fragments and one unidentified piece from Level 5. No distinguishing marks were present on any of the fragments, although several showed evidence of burning. Two firearms-related weaponry artifacts were recovered from Cesspit 10099. Although this feature contained six levels, ammunition was only identified in Levels 3 and 4. A Winchester Repeating Arms “Repeater” shotgun shell was recovered from Level 3, and a .38 Special made for the Colt Special revolver was recovered from Level 4. The .38 Colt Special was introduced with the Smith and Wesson Military and Police Model revolver in 1903 and remains in production today. Because of its accuracy and light weight, the .38 Special is considered one of the best balanced, all-around revolvers ever produced (Barnes 2006:298). The third level of Cesspit 10099 produced a small, nonferrous-alloy Italian coin stamped “REGNO / D’ITALIA / 20 CENTESIMI” on the front side and “1894” on the back. This coin provides a terminus post quem of 1894 for Level 3 and also suggests that at least one of the site’s occupants had a personal and/or commercial tie with Italy. Levels 3 and 6 of Cesspit 10099 yielded a total of three transportation-related artifacts. These items included a light-duty horseshoe recovered from Level 3 and two harness rivets recovered from Level 6. A total of 632 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered from Cesspit 10099. Eighty-six percent (n = 545) of all artifacts in this category were nails and nail fragments; 536 were from wire nails, 8 of which were cut nails. Complete nails (n = 66) measured 3d (n = 1), 4d (n = 8), 6d (n = 7), 8d (n = 24), 10d (n = 10), 12d (n = 3), 16d (n = 3), 20d (n = 7), 30d (n = 1), and 60d (n = 1). All complete nails were common wire nails, except for a single double-headed scaffolding nail. Other identified artifacts (n = 87) included electrical-wire fragments (n = 42), a fire-affected ceramic flooring-tile fragment, 4 roofing washers, 2 screws, 2 bolts, and 7 plumbing-pipe and hose fragments. Two ceramic utility insulator fragments were recovered from Level 5, 1 of which was made by the Akron Insulator and Marble Company (1894–1904). No window glass or tools were recovered from this feature. Although construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were identified in all six of the stratigraphic units of Cesspit 10099, they were concentrated near the top of the feature. The average density of construction-materials artifacts in this feature was 3.05 per cubic foot (0.09/m³), but the majority of artifacts were recovered from Level 2. This level yielded 313 artifacts and had a density of 10.23 per cubic foot (0.29/m³). The only other level with higherthan-average artifact densities was Level 4 (n = 116), with a density of 3.79 per cubic foot (0.11/m³). The high artifact densities near the top of the feature suggest that the abandoned cesspit was capped with sediments that contained higher quantities of architectural debris, perhaps during demolition of nearby buildings. Finally, Cesspit 10099 produced two partial ceramic insulators, four metal and glass lightbulb fragments, and one complete glass lightbulb. One of the insulators was embossed “GEC. 9325”, and the other was marked “STANDARD / AKRON. O[HIO]”. The Akron Insulator & Marble Company of Akron, Ohio, produced electrical porcelain marked with the word “STANDARD” from 1894 to 1904, and the General Electric Company produced standard electrical porcelain in the 1920s (Gish 2009b). The faunal collection from Cesspit 10099 was diverse and included fish, birds, mammals, and both wild and domestic taxa (Table 11). Birds and mammals were found throughout the feature, but fish appeared only in Levels 5 and 6. Proportions of cow and cow-sized bones relative to birds and to sheep–/goat-sized taxa varied among the levels. Beef cuts from Cesspit 10099 included a few pieces from all regions of the body, from the skull to the hooves, including a caudal vertebra. Foot bones were more common than cranial bones, and more than two dozen bones from the feet and lower leg were found. Meat cuts from the axial region were especially plentiful and were represented by saw-cut ribs, vertebrae, ilium, and scapulae. Expensive and inexpensive cuts were present. Meat from sheep, sheep-goats or sheep–/goat-sized taxa also included a range of body parts, but no cranial bones were identified, and lower-leg and foot bones, though present, were few. A complete femur likely represented a leg of lamb, but most other bone likely derived from chops and other small cuts. A few pig bones were identified, including a few cervical vertebra and innominate and leg and foot bones. Pig bones were uncommon through time and consisted of 1 or a few bones in each level. The greatest number of pig bones was recovered in Level 5, but even so, fewer than 10 bones were found in this level, and they contributed just less than 10 percent of the total. A complete pig femur could have been the remains of a complete ham or, if uncured, a pork leg roast. 116 Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) Level 1 contained the least amount of bone, more than half of which was identified as chicken or turkey bone or bone from chicken- and turkey-sized birds. The remaining bone was identified as cow, cow-sized mammal, or sheep–/goat-sized mammal. In Level 2, amphibian bones were likely intrusive. Mammal bone made up just over half the collection and included cow, cow-sized mammal, and sheep–/goat-sized mammal but also included a few pig bones. A fragment of carnivore bone was also recovered. A few bones from a domestic cat were found in an earlier level, and it is possible that the isolated bone from Level 2 may have been part of the same individual or from another individual in unsampled contexts. Wild mammals were represented by cottontail-rabbit bone. Chicken and turkey and possible chicken and turkey bones made up the bulk of the bird bone, but Zenaida and rock doves were present, as were a few pieces of bone from a mockingbird or thrasher and indeterminate passiforme bird. In Level 3, bird bone included a few pieces of bones from waterfowl identified as dabbling ducks or teals, dove or pigeon bone, passiforme bird, and unidentified dove- or quail-sized and songbird-sized birds. The duck or teal bone could represent wild taxa but may also have been domesticated duck, and the dove or pigeon bone could also have been either wild taxa or domestic pigeon. The majority of bird bone was identified as chicken or chicken-sized bone, which together contributed over one-fourth of the total bone NISP from this level. Turkey and turkey-sized bone were present in much lower numbers. As with Level 2, slightly over half the bone was identified as cow or cow-sized taxa. Slightly less than 10 percent of the bone from this level was assigned to sheep/goat or similar-sized taxa. Eggshell was noted in this level. The ratios of cow or cow-sized bone to sheep/goat or sheep–/goat-sized bone reversed in Level 4, and bone from the smaller artiodactyls made up over half the total NISP, and cow bone contributed less than 20 percent to the total. A few pieces of pig bone were also identified. Wild or possibly wild taxa were more important in this level than in the three more-recent levels, including indeterminate duck, goose, or swan bone and remains of dabbling ducks or teals but also mallards and green-winged-teal bone and quail, pigeon, mourning-dove, white-winged-dove, and rock-dove bones. Amphibian and rodent bones may have been intrusive or may represent individuals found in the yard or house and thrown away as part of housecleaning activities. Eggshell was present. In Level 5, green-winged teal and pintail duck were identified, as were possible killdeer bones, as well as bone from waterbirds that could only be identified to general taxonomic units, such as ducks, geese, swans, and dabbling ducks or teals. No bird bones from Level 5 were identified as chicken, but nearly 100 specimens were placed in the general chicken-sized-bird size class. Some of these bones may have been from chickens, but others could have been from ducks or other medium-sized birds. Pigeon, dove, rock dove, mourning dove, and white-winged dove were found, and doves or bone from quail- or dove-sized taxa made up about 10 percent of the total NISP. More leporid bone was recovered in this level than elsewhere in this feature, including over two dozen rabbit or hare bones. Pig bones were also found. Nearly 40 percent of the bone was identified to cow or cow-sized taxa, and sheep/goat or sheep–/goat-sized taxa made up slightly less than 10 percent. About a dozen fish bones and fishbone fragments were found in this level. The bone represented at least two different kinds of fish, including rockfish and California halibut. Frog or toad bone may have been intrusive. The waterfowl found in such variety in Level 5 did not appear in Level 6, which contained no ducks or other water birds whatsoever. Most bird bones were identified as chicken or chicken-sized, with several turkey bones. A small collection of wild birds was present, indicated by a few bones each from quail and white-winged, mourning, and indeterminate Zenaida dove. As with Level 5, cow and bone from cow-sized taxa made up the larger part of the bone sample, with much lower proportions of sheep, sheep/goat, and sheep–/goat-sized taxa. No rodent or leporids were found in this level, nor were any passiforme birds recovered. Cat cranial bones and a mandible were recovered in this level. Fish bones, including jack mackerel and indeterminate bony fish, were present in low numbers. Cesspit 10099 contained a low frequency (MNI = 3) of edible-invertebrate remains, including fragments of a crab (Decapoda) claw (MNI = 1) recovered from Level 4 (Table 12). A Pacific giant cockle shell was also recovered from Level 4, as well as a Pacific giant oyster shell from Level 6. The cockle was likely brought in from the Pacific Ocean, whereas it is unclear whether the crab originated along the West or East Coast. The presence of Pacific giant oyster indicates that at least a portion of the cesspit may date, at the very earliest, to sometime between 1902 and the 1920s. 117 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Chronology, Correlation, and Summary In summary, Cesspit 10099 (Block 252, Lot 4a) served both the Steward and Brown residences, and temporally diagnostic artifacts from it suggest that the feature served both residences until the Stewards moved. Upper deposits from the cesspit have been related to the few renters who occupied the property after the Stewards moved, but prior to its acquisition by Baum and Adamson. Interestingly, ceramic fragments and personal artifacts, such as health and hygiene items and clothing fasteners, were more common in the lower levels of the cesspit, whereas general rubbish, like food containers and construction debris, was more frequent in upper levels. This difference in artifact-type frequency can be interpreted to represent a change in depositional behavior. Upper stratigraphic units were deposited more recently in time and may have represented sediments containing rubbish and architectural debris that were used to fill the cesspit when it was no longer in use. Lower strata represented deposition that occurred when the cesspit was actively used, as indicated by the presence of personal and household items that were infrequently discarded. Ceramics from Cesspit 10099 included utilitarian tablewares and kitchen vessels. Also present were sherds representing vessels manufactured in Mexico; some of these were blackened by cooking. Decorative Japanese tablewares were similar to those found elsewhere on the lot and represent items that were likely used for special occasions or display. Diagnostic sherds on this block dated between 1888 and 1908, even though this lot was occupied from 1889 to 1940. Ceramics recovered from the six stratigraphic units in Cesspit 10099 were concentrated in the lowest strata and suggest a change in depositional behavior over time. The average ceramic artifact density throughout this feature was about 2.15 per cubic foot (0.06/m³). In the upper stratigraphic units, Levels 1–3, ceramic density was much lower (about 0.95/cubic foot or 0.03/ m³). Levels 4–6 had a higher ceramic artifact density of 3.81 per cubic foot (0.11/m³). Lower strata most likely contained the remains of everyday breakage of material culture over time, whereas upper strata were probably composed of undifferentiated fill sediments containing occasional artifacts. Ceramic types in Cesspit 10099 and in Basement 10895 are indicative of a status-conscious household that, at the same time, continued use of functional local wares. Hardpaste and highly decorated ceramic vessels from the United States and Europe were considered a marker of affluence in late-nineteenth-century U.S. society. Combined with hand-painted Japanese decorative vessels, these ceramic vessels suggest the residents of this household put forward the appearance of worldly sophistication that was valued at this time (Mullins 2001:160). Nevertheless, the presence of small, Mexican vessels, including items that had been used for cooking, suggests a continued reliance upon functional utilitarian wares that had long been employed by residents of the Southwest. Numerous glass tableware artifacts were recovered from the lowermost strata of Cesspit 10099, most likely representing the Steward occupation. Included were numerous glass tumblers with various decorative motifs, fragments of a wine glass and a cordial glass, two pitchers, and four decorative table dishes. A small amount of evidence suggested that home-canned foods were consumed by the Stewards, as well as commercially packaged food jars dating from the Steward and Ewing (the first renter on the property) periods. A bottle that once contained prepared Hires root beer dated from the earliest commercial activity on the lot (1937), when Mrs. Alice Towne’s Curios and the Little Yarn Shop began operations. One cheese jar and one Worcestershire sauce bottle dated to the Steward period of occupation. Most of the food and beverage containers from Cesspit 10099 indicated manufacture before 1921, well within the Steward occupation. Bottles containing a food supplement (Mellin’s Food) used for babies and invalids were identified; these were manufactured from 1887 to at least 1897 and therefore may be attributed to the Steward family. Part of a child’s teacup was also found. The Stewards had at least two children—a boy born in 1901 and a girl born in 1906—and these artifacts were likely associated with them. Twice as many distilled-spirits as beer bottles were recovered from Basement 10895, and no wine or champagne containers were identified within that feature. Most of these dated from the Stewards’ occupation. Eight Hiram Walker gin bottles dated to between 1933 and 1964, suggesting deposition by one of the renters that occupied the parcel between the Stewards and the commercial period. By contrast, every level of Cesspit 10099 yielded alcohol containers. Wine and champagne bottles were the most prevalent alcoholcontainer types found throughout the feature, representing about half of the alcohol containers recovered. Beer-bottle shards were next in frequency. Level 2 contained the greatest concentration of alcohol containers in the feature. Datable alcohol containers from this feature ranged in production from 1882 to 1930, placing deposition of Level 2 within the Steward period of occupation. It should be noted that Duffy Malt Whiskey was marketed as a cure-all. 118 Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) Clothing fasteners and fabric were recovered from Cesspit 10099 and included mostly undecorated buttons and corsetry hardware, although men’s, women’s, and babies’ clothing were also represented. Shoe fragments from this feature represented one man’s boot and one woman’s or child’s shoe. Shoe leather was highly fragmented and scattered throughout the deposit; it cannot be attributed to the Steward occupation or to that of later renters on the lot. Numerous personal artifacts from Cesspit 10099 were composed mostly of health/hygiene items dating to the Steward occupation. These included dental-care items, a Vaseline product, douching paraphernalia, a perfume bottle, and a shoe-polish bottle. Smoking-pipe fragments were recovered, suggesting that household individuals were recreational smokers. Only two pieces of ammunition were recovered, suggesting that household members did not participate in recreational target shooting or hunting. The faunal collection included a number of wild species, and it is plausible that household members obtained them from a local butcher or hunter. One interesting artifact from the cesspit was an Italian coin dated 1894, suggesting that a member of the Brown or Steward family traveled to that country or maintained personal or commercial ties with Italy. It is also possible that the coin was curated as a collectible, then discarded. One horseshoe and several harness rivets indicate that the families maintained their own horse-drawn buggies and/or wagons. Included within the construction-materials/hardware-related artifacts recovered from Cesspit 10099 were whole and fragmented insulators from utility transmission lines. Two of these bore maker’s marks indicating they were used on the earliest power line in the neighborhood (1894-1904), and one represented later modifications to utility lines, dating from 1923 to 1975. Other construction-materials fragments were concentrated near the top of this feature, suggesting that the feature was filled upon abandonment, when sewer service was obtained at the lot, or upon demolition of residential features. Lighting products from the feature dated to the 1920s. Faunal remains from Cesspit 10099 included a diverse assortment of fish, birds, and mammals, with both wild and domesticated taxa represented. Beef cuts represented all regions of the body, with foot and hoof elements predominating; both expensive and inexpensive cuts were identified. Saw-cut elements suggested that beef was obtained from a local butcher. Sheep and similar-sized mammals were present and were particularly represented by small cuts. Consumption of pork was represented by a variety of bones; however, pork was rare in comparison to other meats. Chicken and turkey made up the bulk of bird bone in this feature, but waterfowl, Zenaida and rock doves, a mockingbird or thrasher, and another passiforme bird were also identified. Consumption of rabbits/hares was also indicated. Rockfish, California halibut, and jack mackerel may have been obtained frozen, via rail connections. Invertebrate remains included crab, Pacific cockle shell, and Pacific giant oyster shell; species present were obtained from the East or West Coasts via rail connections. Overall, the collection from Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9, represented household activities that were typical of neighborhood residents but included some items that could be considered upper-middle-class items for that time and place. Although traditional and utilitarian items were represented (e.g., Mexican pottery vessels and glass canning jars), a few others were present that could be considered luxury items (e.g., imported decorative ceramic tablewares). The Steward/Brown families and later renters appear to have been the contributors to the material culture recovered from these lots. 119 Figure 38. Block 252, Lots 8 and 9a. Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 120 Figure 39. Block 252, Lots 9b and 10. Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) 121 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 40. Japanese pitcher with “Kanji” maker’s mark from Block 252, Lot 3, Feature 10895 (Inventory No. 08000C658). Table 9. Identified Ceramic Makers’ Marks in Cesspit 10099, Block 252, Lot 4a Manufacturer Country of Origin Level Date Reference United Kingdom 2 after 1900 Godden 1964:355 Unknown Bavaria 4 after 1891 Godden 1964:11 Unknown Austria 5 after 1891 Godden 1964:11 Sebring Pottery Company United States 5 1890–1905 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Homer Laughlin “American Beauty” United States 6 1899–1908 Page et al. 2003:35 Zeh, Scherzer and Company “Orleans” Bavaria 2, 4–6 1899–1909 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Haviland and Company, Limoges France 3, 6 1888–1896 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Johnson Brothers, LTD 122 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 5 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 2, 5, 6 3, 5 4, 5 4, 6 Kilmer’s Swamp Root Arcadian Pharmacy Pitcher’s Castoria Obear-Nestor Glass Company Fred Fleishman Bromo-Seltzer Maltene Manufacturing Company J. C. Flowers Wyeth and Company Parke Davis and Company Burton’s Family Medicines Chamberlain’s Cholic and Cholera Remedy Manufacturer/Product Key: MVC = minimum vessel count. 2 MVC 2 Level Binghamton, New York Tucson, Arizona United States East St. Louis, Illinois Tucson, Arizona Baltimore, Maryland New York, New York Tucson, Arizona Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Detroit, Michigan United States Des Moines, Iowa Origin container, unknown contents gastrointestinal container, unknown contents container, unknown contents gastrointestinal expectorant container, unknown contents container, unknown contents container, unknown contents unknown gastrointestinal Product Use 1881–present kidney, liver, bladder treatment 1897–1907 1863–1923 1915–1980 1880–1924 1899–present 1878–1952 1901–1903 1899–1931 1875–present ca. 1900 1850–1930 Dates of Production Fike 2006:121,187 Toulouse 1971:417 Fike 2006:145 Fike 2006:205–206 Reference Fike 2006:209 Tucson City Directory 1917 Fike 2006:177 Whitten 2009 Chapman Publishing Company 1901 Fike 2006:111 Fike 2006:69 Tucson City Directory 1917 Table 10. Medicine-Bottle Manufacturer Summary for Cesspit 10099, Block 252, Lot 4a Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) 123 124 — — — — — — — — — — — — — 5 3 — — — — — — — — — 1 1 Jackmackerel Flatfishes California halibut Bony fish Amphibian Frog or toad Ducks, geese, and swans Dabbling ducks and teals Mallard duck Green-winged teal Northern pintail duck Killdeer Domestic chicken Wild or domestic turkey Gambel’s quail Pigeons and doves Pigeon Zenaida doves Rock dove Mourning dove White-winged dove Mockingbirds and thrashers Perching bird Turkey-sized bird Chicken-sized bird % 6 6 18.75 31.25 Level 1 NISP Rockfish Common Name 41 15 1 1 — — 1 3 — — — 8 9 — — — — — — 2 1 — — — — — NISP 6.76 0.45 0.45 0.45 1.35 3.60 4.05 0.90 0.45 % 18.47 Level 2 95 3 1 — — — — — — 1 — 14 12 — — — — 2 — — — — — — — — NISP % 24.30 0.77 0.26 0.26 3.58 3.07 0.51 Level 3 61 — — — 7 13 1 20 9 2 13 16 125 — — 8 4 8 1 — 7 — — — — — NISP Level 4 3.10 0.36 0.66 0.05 1.02 0.46 0.10 0.66 0.82 6.37 0.41 0.20 0.41 0.05 0.36 % 93 2 — — 3 29 4 20 9 — — 24 — 4 1 3 — 22 3 5 3 8 1 1 — 3 NISP Level 5 Table 11. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 10099, Block 252, Lot 4a 10 3 2 1 3 2 1 1 % Level 6 42 — — — 1 4 — 3 — — 4 7 29 — — — — — — — — 1 — — 1 — NISP 7.72 0.18 0.74 0.55 0.74 1.29 5.33 0.18 0.18 % Total 333 21 2 1 11 46 6 46 18 3 17 72 180 4 1 11 4 32 4 7 11 9 1 1 1 3 NISP 8 1 1 1 2 4 1 % Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest — — — — — — — — 4 — — 1 1 — 16 Bird, size indeterminate Rodent Rabbit or hare Cottontail Hare Carnivore Domestic cat Pig Cow Sheep Sheep/goat Cow-sized mammal Sheep-/goat-sized mammal Mammal, size indeterminate Total Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. — — Songbird-sized bird Eggshell — % 6 6 25 Level 1 NISP Quail- or dove-sized bird Common Name — 222 5 26 89 — — 5 2 — 1 — 3 — — 1 — 8 2.25 0.90 0.45 1.35 0.45 3.60 % 2.25 11.71 40.09 Level 2 NISP 1 391 — 3 151 31 — 72 — — — 4 — — — — 1 1 % 0.77 38.62 7.93 18.41 1.02 0.26 0.26 Level 3 NISP 25 1,964 — 1,003 — 123 — 330 4 — — 64 — — 1 131 — 13 0.20 3.26 0.05 6.67 0.66 % 51.07 6.26 16.8 Level 4 NISP Level 5 — 884 1 54 73 20 — 268 8 — — — — 31 160 — 31 NISP 6 8 2 0 30 1 3 18 3 % — 544 — 38 286 34 1 84 1 3 — — — — — 5 — — 0.18 0.55 0.92 % 6.99 52.57 6.25 0.18 15.44 Level 6 NISP Total — 4,021 6 1,125 600 208 1 763 15 3 1 68 3 31 1 297 1 53 NISP 28 15 5 19 2 1 7 1 % Chapter 8 • Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 and 9, North Halves Only) 125 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 12. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Privy Pit 10099, Block 252, Lot 4a Common Name Level 4 Level 6 MNIa NISPb MNI NISP Crab 1 5 2.6 7.2 — — Giant Pacific cockle 1 1 33.5 92.8 — — Giant Pacific oyster — — 1 1 24.7 4.0 Total 2 6 36.1 1 1 24.7 4.0 0.07 0.20 1.18 0.11 0.11 2.69 Total density (per cubic foot) Weight (g) Weight (%) 100.0 Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. 126 Weight (g) Weight (%) C hapter  9 Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 270 N. Stone Avenue As has been noted, John Brown (see Biographies) did not participate in the original auction of 1889. However, by August 1890, he had acquired a total of five lots in Block 252 (Lots 3, 4, 5, 8, and 10) from various other property owners, including Rosario Brena, Jose Mariscal, and Fred Fleishman (see Biographies). Shortly thereafter, between February 1890 and February 1892, he erected a modest house at 270 N. Stone Avenue. This house, and the barn he built behind it, can be seen in Figure 10. The residence was 1,344 square feet in size and sat on Lots 4 and 5, and the barn sat in the southeast corner of Lot 10, near the junction of Grossetta and Toole Avenues. In addition to the barn, Brown had also fenced off Lot 10, creating a 50-foot-square corral on the west end, as well as a larger enclosure on the east, surrounding the barn (Sanborn 1901). In 1897, Brown acquired Lot 9 of Block 252 from a local druggist named Fred Fleishman. This, combined with his other lots, created the single largest residential holding on the project area, around 0.85 acres. However, in 1899, when his daughter, Amelia, married Fred J. Steward, Brown split his property in half, transferring the northern portion to Amelia and the southern portion to his wife, Dolores. Dolores continued to hold this property until shortly after John’s death in 1914. As noted above, the Brown family had considerable infrastructure on their lands devoted to the keeping of livestock, perhaps because John had been a rancher. It is therefore interesting to note how land use changed by the time of the 1914 Sanborn map. Brown’s barn and corral structures remained, but the barn function had been changed to storage. Further, just north of the western corral, in the southwest corner of Lot 9, a small (17-by-20-foot) automobile garage had been built, suggesting the Browns had traded in their horse and buggy for a motor-powered vehicle. After John’s death, Dolores transferred the southern lots to their other daughter, Sarah Estberg. Though the property remained in the family’s hands, Sarah and her husband lived in Wisconsin and used her father’s house as a rental property. In 1920, the title to these lots passed from Sarah Estberg to her sister, Amelia Steward. Amelia continued to rent out the property until 1922, when she sold 270 N. Stone Avenue to a group led by Tucson surgeon and real-estate developer Meade Clyne. Clyne and his partners rented out the property until around 1935, when the building was apparently razed. Amelia retained control of Lot 10 and the south half of Lot 9 until 1928, when all of her remaining holdings were sold to Tom Leverda and W. M. Watson. The residential period on this lot was represented by ample archaeological evidence (see Figures 25 and 39), including the basements and a large portion of the foundation of 270 N. Stone Avenue (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building G). The household privy (Privy Pit 10095) was also preserved on the eastern property line behind the main house, as was the burial of a pair of kittens (Animal Burial 22393) and a large number of refuse pits. In fact, the refuse pits associated with 270 N. Stone Avenue represented by far the largest collection of such features in the project area, with approximately one-third of all refuse pits from the project associated with this property. Most (Features 22398, 22399, and 17549) were clustered near the southeastern extent of the Brown property, on Lot 10, near the corral. Several were located in the empty lot behind it (Refuse Pits 22406, 22432, and 22433). Two more (Refuse Pits 719 and 722) were found along the south side of 270 N. Stone Avenue. Interestingly, no refuse pits were recovered on the property of Amelia Brown Steward, John Brown’s daughter and neighbor, suggesting that the Steward household may have made use of off-site disposal methods. 127 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Landscaping features were abundant on this property. Tree pits were identified in the front yard of 270 N. Stone Avenue (Landscaping Features 5189–5210 and 5218). This number represents approximately 25 percent of the total number of landscaping features identified across the site (with the addition of those associated with the commercial period, this figure climbs to nearly 50 percent). Figure 41 shows some of the vegetation associated with these pits. The distribution of tree pits in the front yard appears to indicate a flower bed or area of shrubbery that was probably present in front of the southeast corner of the house, along the fence in the front yard. Though evidence of this fence was not encountered during this investigation, it can be seen in Figure 41 and appears to have been made of a base of stone blocks with wrought-iron fencing on top. The front-yard fence was set back from Stone Avenue by approximately 15 feet. The edge of Stone Avenue was demarcated by a low wooden curb; an image of the curb can be seen in Figure 22. The northsouth alignment of posts for this curb was identified as Wooden Curb 707 (see Stone Avenue). The back yard where Brown’s barn and corrals were located (Lot 10 and the south half of Lot 9) also yielded evidence of fencing. Seventy-two postholes were found on these lots. It is likely that some of these features dated to the later commercial period, as supports for awnings and other structures; however, most represent the various systems of fencing put in place by the Brown family. Numerous alignments of postholes were present, including 4 north-south, at least 1 along Toole Avenue, and a system of corrals along the southern boundary of Lot 10. The postholes varied in diameter from around half a foot to around a foot and a quarter. Two trenches may have been associated with 270 N. Stone Avenue and the residential occupation of these lots. The first (Trench 10097), although located on the property to the north (see Block 252 Lots 3, 4, 8, and 9), was a section of sewer trench that may have connected the residential structure at 270 N. Stone Avenue with the cesspit behind 286 N. Stone Avenue. The second (Trench 10538) probably housed a water pipe. Oddly, this second trench and the associated pipe connected with the basement of 270 N. Stone Avenue through the entry of the stairwell, which would have blocked access to the basement. Besides the above features, another 12 unidentified pits (Features 721, 723, 728, 7627, 7640, 10082, 10094, 22401, 22405, 22480, 26504, and 26505) were encountered on these lots. Commercial History: 280 and 286 N. Stone Avenue; 40 Toole Avenue The commercial period for Lots 9 and 10 began around 1923, when Frank Craycroft started a plumbing and heating shop on the east end of Lot 10, at 40 Toole Avenue (see Biographies). It is unclear whether Frank ever owned the property that the shop sat on, though it seems unlikely. Certainly, up until 1928, it was still in the hands of Amelia Brown Steward, and she did not sell it to Craycroft. Regardless, Frank Craycroft Plumbing and Heating remained at 40 Toole Avenue until Frank’s death in 1929, when it briefly became Craycroft Supply Company before dropping from the archival record. The building remained vacant until 1938, when it was briefly occupied by Arizona Wholesale Electric. According to the Sanborn maps, there appears to have been a small addition to the building constructed between 1930 and 1947. It is hypothesized that this occurred around 1940, when two businesses were listed at this address for the first time. These were Tucson Sheet Metal Works and Tucson Plumbing and Metal. Tucson Sheet Metal Works was run by Ed Nagel and became the Ed Nagel Metal Works in 1942, operating at that location until 1946. Tucson Plumbing and Metal was operated by Emil Bien and became Emil Bien Plumbing in 1950, operating at that location until 1959. After Ed Nagel’s shop closed, Emil Bien’s company shared space—probably the addition—with several other companies, including Southern Egg and Pioneer Wholesale Meats. Because of the small space represented by the addition, these were probably offices rather than storage areas or processing plants. The building became vacant for the last time in 1959, and it was probably demolished by 1962, after which the address does not appear in the Tucson city directories. No archaeological remains of the building were identified. By 1939, the residential structure at 270 N. Stone Avenue had been replaced by a commercial structure (see Appendix B [Photo Index No. 18]). Bowyer Motors, whose primary location was on the project area at the corner of Stone Avenue and Miltenberg Street, took over possession of the property to expand its sales and service facilities. This resulted in the construction of a large repair shop, which covered the east half of the property, and the west half functioned as a used-car lot (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building N). With the construction of this building, the address changed to 280 N. Stone Avenue. 128 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) In the late 1940s, Bowyer Motors vacated the property, which was then taken over by Baum and Adamson (see Chapter 6). The associated repair shop was subsequently incorporated into the company’s expanding structural complex (Sanborn 1952). This building, substantially renovated, outlived the company that built it, remaining at 296 N. Stone Avenue until the start of this investigation. It continued to function as an automobile-repair facility for some time after the demise of Baum and Adamson, though in the years immediately preceding its demolition the structure housed a nightclub (O’Mack 2005). The commercial period was represented by a number of archaeological features (see Figures 25 and 39), including the remains of Building O, the structure at 296 N. Stone Avenue (see Chapter 6). Building N represented the remains of the Bowyer Motors repair shop. These remains included concrete piers, slabs, and foundations, as well as the remains of six hydraulic hoists. The remains of Building R, a concrete slab with an associated French drain, may also have been part of the complex of features related to Baum and Adamson. In addition, there was a grouping of three features (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Postholes 10186, 13737, and 13738), at least one of which (Feature 13738) represented a posthole for the I-beam upright of a billboard that was extant at the beginning of this project (see Appendix B [Photo Index No. 69]). The postholes were clustered at the southwestern edge of Lot 5. The remains of the commercial period also included almost the only evidence of commercial landscaping found in the project area. It consisted of 14 tree pits found along the western side of the Baum and Adamson building, as it was shown on the 1960 Sanborn map (Landscaping Features 7623, 7628–7629, 7632, 7633, 7635–7636, 22400, 22402–22403, 22404, 26506–26507, and 27002). The singularity of this landscaping is interesting, as it seems to point to the basically utilitarian nature of the project area during this time period. Indeed, photographs of the project area during the commercial period (see Figures 17 and 18) depict very little vegetation. Biographies Brena Rosario Brena was a prominent Tucson businessman who briefly owned Lots 5 and 10 of Block 252 in the project area. He appears to have purchased them as speculative ventures, buying them from the City of Tucson during the 1889 auction and selling them the next year to John Brown and Jose Mariscal, respectively. In addition to his apparent involvement in the real estate business, as well as some experimentation in cattle ranching, Brena was the founder, president, and manager of the Brena Commercial Company (McClintock 1916b). A native of Sonora, Mexico, he came to Tucson in 1878, where he worked for Zeckendorf & Company for 6 years before starting his own grocery business on West Congress Street (McClintock 1916b). He apparently opened a second location in 1889 (ADC, 30 August 1889:4; ADS, 25 February 1890:4). In 1901, he became a wholesaler and founded the Brena Commercial Company. The company was located along Toole Avenue, across the street from the project area, until 1918, after which it was replaced by grocers Wheeler and Perry. The Brena Commercial Company was highly successful, eventually expanding to serve both southern Arizona and large areas of Mexico. Brena operated it until his death from tuberculosis in 1914 (ASBH BVS 1914c; McClintock 1916b). Brena’s wife was Mary (or Maria) Cotton, born in Hermosilla, Sonora, Mexico, to American parents, and the couple had two children: Pedro and Rosario. Rosario died young, but Pedro survived to take over his father’s business after the elder Brena died (McClintock 1916b). Pedro died in 1930, and his death certificate was signed by Meade Clyne, who also resided in the project area at one time (ASBH BVS 1930a). The elder Rosario was also credited with bringing the first electric street cars to Tucson, to replace the muledrawn cars that had been used previously (TDC, 5 November 1925:12). Fleishman Fred Fleishman was a prominent Tucson druggist, as well as a property owner in the project area. In 1889, he participated in the auction of the “old cemetery” grounds, purchasing Lot 9 of Block 252. He held the 129 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest property until 1897, though he did not develop it. Eventually he sold the lot to John Brown, who by that time owned all of the surrounding lots. Sources differ as to Fleishman’s origins, but he was either born in California in 1857 or in New York in 1858 (ASBH BVS 1924a), the son of Bavarian immigrants (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). There he worked for a time as a druggist (McClintock 1916c). He came to Tucson around 1880 and worked for Judge Charlie Meyer’s drug store. A few years later, he married the judge’s daughter, Carlotta, and opened Fleishman Drug at 179 W. Congress Street, though he moved the store to 21 E. Congress Street in 1901 (TC, 25 September 1924). He was eventually elected president of the State Board of Pharmacy. He also served as vice president of the Citizen’s Building and Loan Association, as well as director in the Merchants Bank and Trust Company and the Arizona National Bank (Chapman Publishing Company 1901; McClintock 1916c). Socially, Fleishman belonged to a long list of fraternal organizations, among them the Masons, the Elks, the Shriners, and the Knights of Pythias (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). Carlotta died after a 3-year illness, in 1902 (Territory of Arizona 1902a), and in 1914, he remarried, to Fanny Dreyfuss. Fred died of “apoplexy” 10 years later, in 1924 (ASBH BVS 1924a). His pallbearers included Mose Drachman and Gustav Hoff, who also owned property in the project area, as well as other Tucson notables, such as Levi Manning, J. Ivancovich, and Fred Ronstadt (TC, 25 September 1924). His store continued to operate under different management until it closed in 1935. Mariscal For a biography of José Mariscal, see Chapter 15. Brown and Steward In 1890, John Nelson Brown purchased contiguous Lots 3, 4, 5, 8, and 10 of Block 252 on the project area. In 1897, he added Lot 9 to complete a block of land that made his family the largest property owners within the project area for the next 40 years. Soon after, he and his wife, Dolores (Figure 42), built a house on the southern half of the property, at 270 N. Stone Avenue (see Figure 41). His family was living at that location by the time the 1897 city directory was published. The Brown household were among the first residents in the project area. John Brown was born in Deer Creek, Ohio, in 1844 (Chapman Publishing Company 1901); his mother was Irish, and his father was born in Delaware (ASBH BVS 1914d). Between 1865 and 1866, he made his way west by wagon and mule train, arriving in Denver, Colorado. There he took a job as a stage driver between Denver and Pueblo and eventually became the owner and manager of a grocery store in Pueblo. He moved to Prescott, Arizona, in 1873 and began cattle ranching around Tucson in 1874. Brown purchased a ranch on the lower San Pedro River and later the land upon which the town of Mammoth now stands, a town he laid out and promoted (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). In 1909, he sold his cattle business and retired permanently to his home in Tucson. He died 5 years later, in 1914, at the age of 71. John Brown was a Mason and a Democrat. He served one term as city councilman. Brown’s wife was Dolores Ybarra Brown. She was born Dolores Ybarra Mera in Ures, Sonora, Mexico (ASBH BVS 1930b; Chapman Publishing Company 1901), and later emigrated to southern Arizona. She met and married her husband in Florence, Arizona, and the couple produced two daughters, Amelia and Sarah. A notation made on the back of her portrait (see Figure 42) on file at the Arizona State Archives indicates that she was locally known as Doña Lola (O’Mack 2005:67). Even after purchasing property in Tucson, the family often resided at their ranch house in Pinal County, though they frequently had to evacuate to Tucson because of Apache raiding (ADS, 23 June 1914). It is known that Dolores survived her husband (ADS, 23 June 1914), but it is not clear for how long. She no longer lived in the house at 270 N. Stone Avenue by 1918. The couple’s oldest daughter, Amelia, married a local bookkeeper named Fred Steward in 1899, at the age of 22 (Negley and Lindley 1994). After the marriage, her father either gifted or sold the northern half of his property to the young couple. By 1900, Amelia and Fred were living in a new house at 286 N. Stone Avenue, next door to John and Dolores (O’Mack 2005). Daughter Sarah married Edward Estberg, a banker from Wisconsin, and moved out of the state to live with him (ADS, 23 June 1914). Though Sarah inherited 130 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) the remainder of her father’s property after his death in 1914, she never lived there, and those lots were in Amelia’s ownership by the early 1920s. Amelia’s husband, Fred, was born in Akron, Ohio, in 1873 (Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company 1953). When he was 15, his family moved to Illinois, where he graduated from college and became a bookkeeper. His health began to fail in the mid-1890s, and like so many others seeking relief, he moved to Arizona. He arrived in 1895, at the age of 22, and went to live with his aunt and uncle, Henry (Figure 43) and Lavinia Steward, in Oracle. Uncle Henry Brown Steward, a retired miller born in England, died in late 1901. His death certificate includes a handwritten paragraph from his physician certifying that he died of heart disease and not of a contagious disease (Territory of Arizona 1901), a statement that calls to mind questions of possible disease outbreaks in the area. Fred’s Ohio-born aunt, Lavinia, survived over a dozen more years before dying in her Oracle home, in 1917 (ASBH BVS 1917a). It is not known exactly what ailment afflicted Fred, but his aunt later left $50,000 to found a hospital for tuberculosis patients, and Fred was one of the trustees (AHS 1928b). A side note of particular interest to archaeologists: Lavinia also provided financial aid to A. E. Douglass for the formation of the Steward Observatory at the University of Arizona after the death of her husband, in 1916 (Stiles 2008). Douglass’s observations on sunspot activity led to the invention of tree-ring dating (Douglass 1919). In 1898, Fred Steward moved to Tucson to work as a bookkeeper for Bayless and Berkalew, a sheep and cattle company (Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company 1953). There he met both his future wife and a man named Nathaniel E. Plumer, who had also come to Arizona for his health. The two men went into business together in 1901, when they bought out the Lord and Williams real-estate firm. In 1903, they opened the Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company, of which both Fred’s aunt and his father-in-law were stockholders. The company’s first ledger included such Tucson notables as Fred Ronstadt, Mose Drachman, L. H. Manning, and Albert Steinfeld. When Plumer died, in 1917, Steward became president of the bank, and he remained so until his retirement in 1938 (Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company 1953). Fred and Amelia Steward had two children. Their son, Henry Brown Steward, was born in 1901, just 13 days before the older Henry Brown Steward’s death (Steward 1901). By 1928, he had moved to Los Angeles and had a son (AHS 1928a). Daughter Mildred (Figure 44) was born in 1906 (Steward 1906). She completed her undergraduate education at the University of Arizona. She won the Merril P. Freeman award for the senior with the most outstanding record, graduated with honors, and was elected to Phi Kappa Phi (ADS, 19 May 1928). In previous years, she had been a member of the sorority Kappa Alpha Theta and had been voted Queen of the Desert in 1926 (ADS, 27 January 1926). In December of 1928, after travelling in Europe, Amelia and Fred moved out of their house at 270 N. Stone Avenue and into a new home on Fourth Street in the University Manor addition (AHS 1928b). Little was researched about the couple’s life after this point, though by 1953 they appear to have retired to Santa Monica, California. Fred died in Santa Monica in 1961 (Rootsweb 2010), and Amelia followed him the next year (TDC, 23 April 1962). By this point, she was on the Board of Directors for St Luke’s in the Desert, a tuberculosis sanatorium that opened in Tucson in 1918. Breathitt Colonel John Breathitt lived at 270 N. Stone Avenue between 1916 and 1918. His wife, Mary Downing Breathitt, who came to Tucson in 1918, may also have lived briefly at that address before the couple moved to a new residence on South Scott Avenue. John was born in 1844 in Russellville, Kentucky (ASBH BVS 1923a), but spent most of his early life in Missouri. In 1862, he enlisted in Company G of the Second Missouri Cavalry (Confederate) and was the veteran of several Civil War battles in Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida before surrendering to Federal forces in 1865 (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). Afterward, he took up his father’s profession and was admitted to the Missouri bar in 1875. He practiced law for 10 years and also became involved in politics. In 1886, he was elected railroad commissioner of Missouri, in which capacity he served for 6 years (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). He came to Arizona in 1895, after he was appointed special agent of the Land Department of the Interior by President Grover Cleveland, and he served in this capacity until 1897. When this appointment ended, he remained in Tucson and organized the Pima Investment & Trading Company. The company dealt in real estate, mines, and cattle (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). He also served as special council for the Southern Pacific Railroad (Montegue 1912). During this time, Breathitt remained active in politics. Like most Arizonans of the time, he was a Democrat (Arizona Bulletin, 20 August 1901) and campaigned vigorously 131 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest for Arizona statehood. In 1901, Breathitt was unanimously elected the national committeeman from Arizona at the territorial convention, and he participated in the Democratic campaign that year. In addition to his ventures in Tucson, Breathitt apparently expanded his interests into other parts of Arizona and Mexico. He owned stock in several mining companies on both sides of the international border (Arizona-Jerome Copper Company 1917), including the Mexican-owned Fay-Cananea Copper Company (Fay-Cananea Copper Company 1907). He was later involved in the funding of the Sonora Hotel Company, of which he was president (Montegue 1912). Breathitt died in 1923. Among his honorary pall bearers were Fred Steward, who had been his neighbor and probably his landlord while he lived on the project area (AHS n.d. c). Mary was born in Virginia in 1864 and came to Tucson in 1918, at the age of 54. There she met and married John. She survived her husband by approximately 30 years and moved into the Southern Pacific Railroad–owned Santa Rita Hotel after his death (ASDH DVS 1953a; AHS 1953). She was head of the Carnegie Free Library of Arizona for most of her life in Tucson, and her career and retirement were noted in local newspapers (ADS, 5 September 1924, 4 February 1949; AHS 1924a;). In 1931, Mary obtained a passport, good for 2 years, that was stamped with visas for several countries, including Great Britain and possibly Denmark (U.S. Department of State 1931). Her subsequent overseas peregrination was also reported in local news (AHS n.d. d). Mary died on January 4, 1953. Clyne For a biography of Meade Clyne, see Chapter 10. Commercial Enterprises Frank Craycroft Plumbing and Heating Frank Craycroft was born in Kentucky in 1872 and came to Tucson in 1904. He took a plumbing job with the J. Knox Corbett Company, where he worked under W. A. Julian before starting his own business, in 1923 (ASBH BVS 1929b; TC, 19 May 1925). Frank Craycroft Plumbing and Heating was the first occupant of the new structure at 40 Toole Avenue in the project area. The structure is not depicted on the 1922 Sanborn map and was probably built by or for Craycroft the next year. When Dan Brewster opened his apartment complex in the project area in 1924, Craycroft took an apartment at 78 Grossetta Avenue, next door to his new business. In 1925, at the age of 54, he married Edna Greene and moved out of the project area. The Tucson Citizen reported that, “without confiding his intentions to his numerous friends, Mr. Craycroft boarded a train for El Paso,” returning with his new bride and promptly ensconcing her in the house he had been constructing on East Speedway Boulevard (TC, 19 May 1925). At the time, he was reportedly the only certified heating engineer in the state of Arizona. Craycroft died of pulmonary tuberculosis in May 1929, at the age of 58 (ADS, 10 May 1929; ASBH BVS 1929b). The business was still called Frank Craycroft Plumbing in the 1930 Tucson City Directory, but it subsequently changed to Craycroft Supply. The shop foreman that year, one Jack Ryan, lived on the project area at 51 Grossetta Avenue, though he had taken a job with J. Knox Corbett by the following year. For its remaining years, Craycroft Supply was run by W. A. Julian, Frank’s former boss, and C. H. Julian. Edna continued to live at the couple’s home address in the years immediately following her husband’s death. However, the business closed, and the building was vacant by 1933. It is unclear whether Julian bought the business from Frank’s widow or was simply settling the company’s affairs before closing shop. In any case, there is no other listing for Craycroft Plumbing or Craycroft Supply anywhere in Tucson in 1933 or the following years. 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson (Building O) For an account of 294–296 N. Stone Avenue, see Chapter 6. 132 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) Bowyer Motor Company For an account of the Bowyer Motor Company, see Chapter 10. Architectural Descriptions 270 N. Stone Avenue, John and Dolores Brown (Building G) This one-story, single-family dwelling was Folk Victorian in style. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1901–1930) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7, 17, 18, and 55]; see Figures 10, 12, and 14). Oriented west-east, the main entrance faced west onto North Stone Avenue. The residence was rectangular in plan view and constructed of brick with a wood-framed cornice. The moderately pitched, wood-framed, gable-on-hipped roof had perpendicular, cross-gabled dormers and was clad in wood shingles. The roof had narrow eaves, and the roof and dormer gable ends had louvered attic vents. Two interior chimneys were located on the south side of the building. Full-facade, wood-framed porches with wood-shingled roofs adorned the front and rear of the house. The front porch exhibited a wood-framed, hipped roof and spandrels with lace-like designs supported by interior-cutout square posts. Access was provided to the front porch by a set of steps. Lattice flanked the steps and blocked access to the subfloor. 2701/2 N. Stone Avenue, John and Dolores Brown (No Building Number) This one-story outbuilding served as an automobile garage between 1910 and sometime between 1930 and 1947 (see Appendix B [Photo Index No. 18]; see Figure 14) (Sanborn 1909–1947). Constructed of brick, it was rectangular in plan and had a wood-framed cornice. Its gabled roof was sheathed in a composite material. The primary opening was located on the north facade. 80 Grossetta Avenue, John and Dolores Brown (No Building Number) This two-story building was a Spanish Colonial–style vernacular building (see Figures 10 and 12) (Sanborn 1901–1914). Likely constructed of adobe around 1890, the rectangular-in-plan building had a moderately pitched, wood-framed, gabled roof. Likely used as a stable or barn, the building had no doors or windows on its south or west sides and likely none on its east side. The west gable end, and likely the east gable end, had a centered opening for ventilation. Between 1909 and 1914, the recorded use of this building changed from stable to storage. It was gone by 1919. 40 Toole Avenue, Frank Craycroft Plumbing and Heating (No Building Number) Built around 1923 (TC, 19 May 1925), this L-shaped structure was one story tall and fronted Toole Avenue. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (Sanborn 1930–1960) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 20, 23, 25–27, and 29]; see Figures 15–18 and 33). Constructed of brick, it had a flat roof sheathed in a composite material and a 2-foot-high parapet on the north facade. The walls were 1 foot thick, and the building had a 16-foot roof height. There were no windows on the west facade. At the rear of the building, there was a wood-framed portion that was constructed with metal-framed walls on the west and south sides. It was one story and had a shed roof sheathed in a noncombustible material. Between 1931 and 1947, a rectangular addition was added on the west facade of the building, in the crook of the L-shaped structure. Metal- and wood-framed, it was one story in height, with a tile chimney and a roof sheathed in a noncombustible material. Between 1953 and 1957, the most recent addition and a portion of the first addition on the west side were removed, reducing the square footage of the building. 133 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 280 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company (Building N) This one-story commercial building was constructed of brick and divided into two sections (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 22, 25, 27, 29, and 45]; see Figures 16–18, and 33) (Sanborn 1947–1960). Rectangular in plan, it had 12-inch-thick walls. The flat steel-truss roof was supported by concrete columns set in the poured-concrete foundation and floor. The roof had a 2-foot-high parapet. The northerly section had a 12-foot-high roof clad with a composite material. The southerly section had a 20-foot-high roof sheathed in a noncombustible material. On the southern end of the building, a band of wired-glass clerestory windows provided interior light. At least one service bay was located on the east side of the southerly section. A small one-story office building was located west of the main building in a lot used for automobile sales. Around 1947, the small building was removed from the sales lot. Between 1948 and 1952, this building was incorporated into the expanding Baum and Adamson building to the north (see Chapter 6). Baum and Adamson For an account of Baum and Adamson, see Chapter 6. Archaeological Feature Descriptions Animal Burial 22393 Feature 22393, an animal burial (Figure 45), was identified during mechanical stripping on Lot 10, 20 feet north of the northwest of Building R (see Figure 39). It measured approximately 17 by 9 inches and was 2 inches deep. The burial was excavated in a single level, according to methods used for burials on this project. The feature was defined as a shallow, subrectangular pit, oriented north-south and containing the articulated remains of two juvenile cats. The feature was filled with a silty loam, and the surrounding matrix was Natural Stratum II caliche. The kittens were oriented in opposite directions. The upper remains were oriented with the head to the south and the tail to the north, and the lower remains were oriented with the head to the north and the tail to the south. No artifacts were recovered. The kittens were of different ages. Most of the larger bones were present, but smaller elements, such as most of the foot bones and teeth, were missing. Most of the long bones were unfused, but because many cat epiphyses do not completely close for well over a year, it is not possible to use epiphyseal fusion for exact age determination. However, there were a few clues as to the older cat’s minimum age. The epiphysis of one recovered proximal radius was fully fused, and another was completely unfused. Because the feline proximal radius fuses at approximately 196 days (Newton and Nunamaker 1985), it is likely that one individual was at least 6 months old and the other was younger than 6 months. A few metacarpals were also recovered. These were fused distally, indicating that at least one of the cats was at least 203–280 days old, or approximately 6–9 months. Only a few teeth and tooth fragments were recovered. All were either deciduous or indeterminate premolars and canines. They probably belonged to an animal less than 6 months of age (Hillson 2005:242). No pathologies were noted. Included with the kittens and likely intrusive to the burial, having been previously deposited in the soils with which the burial was backfilled, were a small number of bones that likely originated as food remains. These comprised one chicken bone, two bones from squirrel-sized mammals, and seven bones from sheepsized mammals. Building G (270 N. Stone Avenue, John and Dolores Brown) Building G (see Figure 25) was a residential structure situated at 270 N. Stone Avenue, as shown on the Sanborn maps for 1901 through 1930. It was encountered during mechanical stripping of the project area and was composed of three primary component features that measured 44 by 33 feet in overall area. 134 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) Feature 5211 was a basalt-cobble and adobe-brick foundation with cement mortar that delineated the outline of the building. Only three of the four external walls remained, the west wall having been disturbed by Feature 10074, a north-south-running concrete foundation representing the western side of the Baum and Adamson building (Building O). Additionally, two internal walls were observed. One extended east from midway along the west wall, and the other extended south from midway along the north wall. They varied between 20 and 26 inches in width and converged near the center of the structure, leaving a north-southfacing opening just over 2 feet wide. The fill of the feature contained brick fragments and basalt cobbles. It was mapped using photogrammetry and mechanically excavated. Feature 10536 represented an east-west-oriented basement beneath the northeast corner of Building G, extending 14 by 11 feet. The walls were dressed basalt blocks with cement mortar, laid in 3–5 courses, with chinking. They had a maximum height of 3 feet and wall widths ranging between 11 and 18 inches. The floor was paved with bricks laid in 42 rows from east to west, in an offset-stretcher pattern. The feature was mechanically excavated and mapped with photogrammetry. Feature 10620 was a stairwell at the northern end of the eastern wall of Basement 10536. It was mechanically excavated to the level of the basement and then hand-excavated in two levels. The second level consisted of fill from shallow grooves running along the floor and was distinguished from the fill of Level 1 by the presence of ash. The fill consisted of approximately 80 percent building rubble (brickbats, mortar, plaster, and stone), as well as refuse, in a matrix of light-tan silty sand. The caliche floor sloped down from the entrance to a brick landing separated from the floor of the basement by a groove filled with cement mortar. There were also grooves along each wall, probably related to supports for the risers, though no evidence of the risers was encountered. Flakes of basalt in the grooves may represent evidence of on-site shaping of the basalt masonry that faced the stairwell walls. Stairwell 10620 measured 71/2 feet east-west by 31/2 feet north-south. It was disturbed by an east-westoriented 4-inch metal pipe (Feature 10539) within a trench (Feature 10538) that passed through the middle of the entrance and extended approximately 31/2 feet into the basement. The relationship between the pipe and Building G is unclear. It may be a later disturbance, or it may represent a remodeling episode involving the introduction of utilities to the residence. If it was a remodeling episode, it probably included a new access point for the basement, as the pipe was laid down the middle of the stairwell. Building N (280 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company) Building N (see Figure 25) once contained at least seven hydraulic hoists. The remains of the eastern wall of the building were identified during excavation. The southern wall of the building was probably formed by or abutted to the eastern half of the north wall of Building J (see Figure 24). Archival sources (Sanborn 1947) indicate that this structure was approximately 75 feet square. It is not entirely clear which features were related to Building N, because of the expansions associated with Building O. However, it is likely that a 72-foot-long poured-concrete foundation (Feature 17545) represented the eastern wall of this building (see Figure 39). This feature matched the location of the wall as it was depicted on Sanborn maps for 1947 and 1949. Foundation 17545 abutted another north-south-running wall (Feature 10091) at its northern extent. Although these features may have become a single wall during the expansions of Building O, they were clearly part of separate buildings originally. Feature 10091 represented the east wall and part of the south wall of Building M (see Chapter 8). Within the historical bounds of Building N, seven hydraulic hoists were encountered (Figure 46). These features (Features 729, 730, 4577–4579, 5273, and 10090) were found in two separate groupings. The first grouping (Features 729, 730, 4577–4579) was located in the southern part of the repair facility, near its junction with Building J (see Chapter 10). Their positioning indicates that these five hoists were part of the initial construction of Building N. They were arranged along the southern and western walls of the building in a quarter-circular formation, with 10 feet of space between hoists. The hoists were discovered in varying states of repair; however, they all appeared to have been constructed from the same basic design (see Figure 46). The other two hoists (Features 5273 and 10090) were located at the very northern edge of the original boundary of the building and were probably installed during the expansion of the Baum and Adamson facilities associated with Building O. A large brick and concrete pit was constructed for the dynamic foot of each hoist. The dynamic foot rolled along the length of the 8-foot-deep, 10-foot-long pit on a metal track, which allowed for the hoist to be adjusted to the size of the vehicle. This pit was formed in the shape of a left-facing L. The last 3 feet of the pit held the control valves and the hydraulic tank necessary to operate 135 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest the hoist. The top 6 inches of the pit edge were constructed from poured concrete, but the rest of the pit was of brick construction. The pit was connected to a static foot by a metal pipe contained within a concrete pipe. The static foot was held immobile within a rectangular concrete pillar. Building N intruded a number of other features. Its footprint superimposed and probably disturbed the upper fill of several graves (Grave Pits 724–726, 731, 10077, and 10081), though the burials in them were not impacted; pits (Features 723, 728, 10082, and 10094); and the stairwell (Feature 10620) into the basement of Building G. Additionally, three of the hoists disturbed grave features. One (Feature 730) intruded on the fill of Grave Pit 727 but did not disturb either the coffin or the burial. Another (Feature 729) intruded on a second grave (Grave Pit 725), and as a result, concrete was poured over the bones of the right foot. A third hoist (Feature 4579) intruded on the fill of Grave Pit 22354 but did not disturb the burial. Foundation 17545 superimposed the western ends of Grave Pits 17547 and 17548 but did not disturb the burials. The same foundation was probably built over a privy pit (Feature 10095), though no disturbance to that feature was noted. The foundation was also abutted by a trench (Feature 10538). Building O (294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson) For a description of Building O, see Chapter 6. Building R (294–296 N. Stone Avenue, Baum and Adamson [Features 7622 and 22478]) Building R (see Figure 39) was discovered during mechanical stripping. The feature was composed of a large concrete slab (Feature 7622) and a linear stain suggestive of a French drain (Feature 22478). The concrete slab was slightly trapezoidal in plan view and oriented east-west. It measured 25 feet on its east and west sides, 30 feet on the south side, and 33 feet on the north side. The possible French drain was identified as a stain and had looser fill than the surrounding matrix. The stain followed the northern and eastern edges of the concrete slab and was approximately halfway beneath it along the drain’s entire length. The northern leg of the stain was 281/2 feet long, and the eastern leg was nearly 20 feet long. The stain ranged in width from 9 inches to almost 2 feet. Building R abutted Foundation 7621 and superimposed a number of postholes (Features 7630, 7631, 7634, and 7638), landscaping features (Features 7632, 7633, 7635, and 7636), a trench (Feature 7637), and a concrete foundation (Feature 22479). The structure was also superimposed upon Grave Pit 26510. The disturbance to these features was minimal to nonexistent. Landscaping Feature 7632 Landscaping Feature 7632 was a subrectangular tree pit discovered during mechanical stripping. It measured 52 by 19 inches and was approximately 10 inches deep. The feature was a shallow basin within Natural Strata I and II. The eastern third of the feature disturbed the adjacent tree pit, Landscaping Feature 7633. The fill of Feature 7632 had two stratigraphic divisions. The upper stratum was pale brown and held most of the few artifacts recovered during excavation. The artifacts recovered included fragments of flat glass and faunal bone. The lower stratum was largely free of artifacts and had a higher level of caliche nodules. The stratigraphic morphology and the low artifact density were consistent with the general characteristics of landscaping features on the project area. The feature was intruded on the southern side by Foundation 7621 and was located under a concrete slab (Feature 7622). Posthole 10186 Feature 10186 was a posthole pit identified during mechanical stripping. It measured 24 by 12 inches and was 24 inches deep. The posthole intruded the eastern half of the south wall of Grave Pit 709 but did not appear to have disturbed the human remains. It was in turn disturbed by another posthole (Feature 13738) (see Figure 25), which also disturbed the grave. The fill was yellowish-brown sandy clay loam, with a surrounding 136 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was excavated as a single level and was not bisected. It contained metal and composite construction material. Posthole 13737 Feature 13737 was a nearly circular posthole pit identified during mechanical stripping. It measured 16 by 15 inches and was 32 inches deep. The posthole intruded Grave Pit 709 but did not disturb the remains in the burial (see Figure 25). The fill was yellowish-brown and sandy, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was excavated as a single unit and was not bisected. It contained a few artifacts that were probably incidental to the function of the feature. Posthole 13738 Feature 13738 was a posthole pit identified during mechanical stripping that supported the I-beam for a billboard sign. It measured 20 by 18 inches and was 56 inches deep. The posthole (see Figure 25) intruded Grave Pit 709, disturbing the east end of the burial, as well as another posthole (Feature 10186). The fill was a yellowish-brown sandy clay loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was excavated as a single level and contained historical-period artifacts. Privy Pit 10095 Feature 10095 was a privy pit encountered during mechanical stripping. The excavated extent of the feature measured approximately 7 by 4 feet in plan view and was oriented north-south. However, the close proximity of Feature 17545, a foundation postdating the privy, suggests that an unknown portion of the upper-eastern portion of Feature 10095 may have been destroyed. The feature was mechanically excavated in arbitrary 50-cm levels, to a total depth of approximately 10 feet. The quantity of artifacts recovered in the first two levels, which included a large number of whole bottles, suggested a postprivy refuse dump during which the pit was open or in some other way accessible from the top. Lower levels included greenish fill, indicative of human waste, as well as ash layers that may have represented privy maintenance. Refuse Pit 719 Feature 719 was a nearly circular refuse pit discovered during mechanical stripping. It measured 22 by 23 inches and was 43 inches deep. The feature fill was a sandy loam with ash and refuse, including burned bone, metal, and prehistoric artifacts. The fill was excavated in a single level. The surrounding matrix was consistent with Natural Stratum II. Refuse Pit 17549 Feature 17549 was an east-west-oriented, subrectangular pit discovered during mechanical stripping. It measured 38 by 28 inches and was 29 inches deep. The surrounding matrix consisted of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The walls of the feature tapered slightly toward the floor, which was roughly level. The feature fill was silty sand. Four strata were observed, based on variations in ash content and fill color. The uppermost was pinkish with a relatively low amount of ash, followed by a layer with slightly higher ash content and evidence of oxidization. The third stratum had a much higher ash and charcoal content and was light gray in color, as a result. The fourth stratum was a thin layer of yellowish-brown fine silty sand. The density of artifacts did not differ by level, nor did the presence of oxidation or other evidence of in situ burning. The feature as a whole contained a moderate to high number of artifacts, and it is likely that there was significant in situ burning throughout the feature. Most of the artifacts were consistent with household waste, including cut food bone and broken lightbulbs. Refuse Pit 17549 was discovered underneath a concrete slab (Feature 10452) and was partially disturbed by a concrete foundation (Feature 7621). 137 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Refuse Pit 22398 Feature 22398 was an east-west-oriented, oval pit encountered during mechanical stripping. It measured 63 by 47 inches and was 28 inches deep. The feature had vertical walls and a floor that was mostly level, though the western third sloped significantly toward the east. Two strata were identified in the fill, and they were excavated as separate levels in the western section. Level 1 was much smaller in both profile and plan view, suggesting that it represented an intrusive deposit. The color was dark gray, consisting of silty loam with medium compaction and significant quantities of charcoal. Level 2 consisted of medium-brown sandy clay loam with medium compaction and moderate to light charcoal flecking. Both strata also contained artifacts consistent with household refuse. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Refuse Pit 22399 Feature 22399 was a cylindrical refuse pit encountered during mechanical stripping, south of Refuse Pit 22398. It measured 41 inches in diameter and was 23 inches in depth. The feature fill divided into three strata, identified in profile. The top layer was medium-brown sandy clay loam mottled with gray and black. The fill contained charcoal and historical-period artifacts. The middle layer was reddish-brown sandy clay loam. It contained gravel and charcoal, with fewer artifacts than above. The bottom layer was reddish-brown sandy clay loam mottled with gray and black. The fill contained charcoal and many more artifacts than the previous two layers. The artifacts from all three strata were consistent with domestic refuse. The walls of the pit showed extensive evidence of burning, including oxidation and a heavy buildup of soot. This evidence, along with the multiple depositional episodes, indicates repeated use of the feature for the thermal disposal of refuse. The surrounding matrix of this feature was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Refuse Pit 22406 Feature 22406, an oval pit on Lot 9, was discovered during mechanical stripping. It measured 37 by 22 inches. The density and type of materials observed were consistent with household refuse, and a sample was collected. Refuse Pit 22432 Feature 22432, a circular pit on Lot 9, was discovered during mechanical stripping and measured 43 inches in diameter. The density and type of materials observed were consistent with household refuse, and a sample was collected. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Block 252, Lot 4b Fragments from a minimum of three machine-made jars were recovered from Basement 10536, which was sampled. This was the only food-storage vessel type recovered from this lot. It was not possible to determine original contents for jars, though one commercially packed jar was recovered. A suction scar present on this vessel indicates a manufacture date of 1904 and after (Jones and Sullivan 1989:38). Represented by continuously threaded finish fragments, at least two canning jars were present, suggesting that consumption of some home canned foods took place in the household. The basement sample also yielded one complete and one fragmentary bottle that held a Mexican tequila. The bottles were made by the Cartel Vidriera Monterrey company that started operation in 1909 and was in 138 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) production as late as 1958 (Whitten 2009). Sampled Basement 10536 yielded fragments from two medicine bottles. Neither vessel had identifiable marks. One bottle was completely machine-made. A red brick fragment and three window-glass fragments were recovered during the sampling of Basement 10536. This basement feature was associated with strictly commercial enterprises—a plumbing business in operation from 1923 to 1929, followed by an electrical business in 1938, then divided into (1) a sheet-metal business from 1940 to 1946 and the offices of an egg and meat company beginning in 1946, and (2) another plumbing operation, from 1940 to 1959. The building was demolished in 1962. The two tequila bottles dated from 1909 to as late as 1958. They may have been deposited in the basement while the building was unoccupied, during the late 1950s, or they may have been scraped into the basement from a nearby residential context when the building was demolished. Temporally diagnostic food and beverage containers from Basement 10536 reflected domestic refuse and indicated deposition as early as 1904, well within the Brown family occupation. Construction debris from this feature was temporally nondiagnostic and included a red brick fragment and window-glass fragments. Block 252, Lot 5 No artifacts were identified from this lot in the following categories: communication or invertebrate. Refuse Pit 719 yielded 10 ceramic fragments from 4 vessels. Despite the small size of this collection, ceramic sherds composed approximately 20 percent of all artifacts in this feature. Ceramic sherds and vessels were primarily semivitreous, white-bodied earthenware, but the collection also included a hardpaste fragment from an unidentified vessel form. The only identified tableware item was represented by sherds from an undecorated, semivitreous, handled cup. Ceramic sherds excavated from Privy Pit 10095 composed about 22 percent of all artifacts in the feature. Ceramics recovered from this block were made between 1888 and 1963, although the block was residentially occupied only between 1890 and 1939. Approximately 71 vessel forms were identified from the 238 sherds that were recovered. Ceramics were primarily tableware items. Most fragments (n = 179) and identified vessels (MVC = 44) were made from hardpaste porcelain. Semivitreous, white-bodied-earthenware sherds (n = 49) were also identified. Nonvitreous and vitreous, white-bodied earthenware and stoneware were only 4 percent (n = 10) of ceramics in this feature. Vessels were dominated by bowls (MVC = 16) and plates (MVC = 15), although at least 7 handled cups and 4 saucers were also identified. The privy had an average ceramic artifact density of 0.84 per cubic foot (0.02/m³). Level 2 contained 46 percent of ceramics and had a density of 2.23 per cubic foot (0.06/m³), and the average ceramic density in Levels 1 and 3–5 was much lower (0.55/cubic foot or 0.02/m³). Level 6 had only 1 ceramic sherd and was nearly devoid of all artifacts. Except for Levels 2 and 6, the density of ceramic artifacts was similar throughout this feature. The high density of ceramics in Level 2 mirrors concentrations of other artifact types. Level 2 had 54 percent of all artifacts in Privy Pit 10095 and probably represented a mass dumping episode. Although sherds in Privy Pit 10095 were concentrated in a single stratigraphic unit, makers’ marks with country and date of manufacture were recovered from every level but Level 6. Identified marks were mostly for European firms (Table 13). Nonceramic-tableware and culinary artifacts (n = 45; MVC = 38) were identified in five of the six stratigraphic units of Privy Pit 10095. Level 6 was the only stratigraphic unit that was devoid of nonceramic tablewares. When combined, Levels 2 (n = 11), 4 (n = 12), and 5 (n = 10) contained 73 percent of the nonceramic-tableware artifacts. All tablewares were from glass vessels, primarily tumblers (MVC = 23). Decorative technologies on tumblers included etching (MVC = 6), press molding (MVC = 3), and cut glass (MVC = 1). More than half the tumblers (MVC = 13) exhibited no decoration. Fragments of three glass stemware vessels were also identified, along with three decorated glass bowls. Decorative glass tableware items included two colorless, press-molded custard cups and a colorless sauce or berry bowl with a diamond decorative motif. Other tableware artifacts included colorless, undecorated fragments from a glass pitcher handle and shards of a decanter. The single stratigraphic layer of Refuse Pit 719 yielded fragments of a minimum of two bottles that once contained foodstuffs or beverages. Half of the identifiable food/beverage glass from this lot was handfinished (50 percent, n = 1). Evidence of one unmarked “American” horseradish bottle (Putnam 1965:193) was identified. No temporally diagnostic food-/beverage-related artifacts were present to provide a terminus post quem for this feature. Privy Pit 10095 held whole and partial vessels representing a minimum of 49 food and beverage containers, including 33 bottles, 15 jars, and 8 cans. Fifteen bottle/jar closures were also represented. Food/beverage containers and bottle/jar closures were recovered from all six stratigraphic layers. 139 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Level 1 contained the widest variety of glass vessel types and closures. Of those vessels with identifiable technology, hand-finished (23 percent, n = 11) was the majority. Bottles and bottle/jar closures were found in the first four levels of the privy pit. The majority of bottle contents remain unidentified. Evidence of at least 16 condiment bottles was found in this feature. Of note is a McIlhenny Tabasco sauce bottle dating as early as 1868 (Zumwalt 1980:292) and a Lea & Perrins’ Worcestershire sauce bottle with a glass stopper. According to maker’s marks, the Illinois Glass Company produced 1 of the unidentified condiment bottles between 1875 and 1911 (Whitten 2009). At least 2 unidentified food bottles, 5 infant or invalid Mellin’s Food supplement bottles, 9 unidentified beverage bottles, and 1 milk bottle were also recovered. Bottle closures included 7 crown caps. At least 2 food bottles/jars for which contents remain unknown were identified. All jars were observed in the first two and last two levels of Privy Pit 10095, and their contents remain unidentified. Evidence of at least six canning jars was recovered, indicating the residents undertook some canning activity. One had a zinc threaded cap manufactured after around 1858 (Lief 1965:12), but the suction scar on its base indicates the jar was made after 1904. Canning was also represented by seven colorless, light-green, and milk-glass lid liners. At least one commercial packing jar produced by Obear-Nester Glass Company was found and dates between 1894 and 1915 (Toulouse 1971:373). Cans were found in all but the bottom level. At least two sanitary cans and one hole-in-cap can were identified. Although some of the artifacts recovered from this feature entered production as early as 1868, long before this lot was occupied, temporally diagnostic food and beverage containers indicate deposition between the initial occupation of the lot and 1915. Out of the total six stratigraphic units of a Privy Pit 10095, alcohol-related glass artifacts were recovered only from the three uppermost strata. Levels 1, 2 and 3 had a combined total of 153 alcohol-related artifacts, at a density of 1.08 per cubic foot (0.03/m³). Seventy-four percent (n = 113) of bottle shards representing about 105 vessels were recovered from Level 2, which had the highest alcohol-bottle-shard density in this feature (2.4/cubic foot or 0.07/m³). In Level 2, 40 percent (n = 45: MVC = 47) of shards were from distilledspirits bottles, 35 percent (n = 40; MVC = 37) were from wine or champagne bottles, and beer-bottle fragments represented 25 percent (n = 28; MVC = 35). Vertically throughout the feature, distilled-spirits-bottle (MVC = 47) and wine‑ or champagne-bottle (MVC = 44) shards composed 37 percent (n = 56 each) of all shards. Beer-bottle shards were 27 percent (n = 41; MVC = 35). Datable marks on beer and distilled-spirits bottles were concentrated in Level 2 and indicated that vessels in this feature were made between 1875 and 1916. Beer bottles made by the Streator Company (1881 and 1905), Reed and Company (1881–1904), American Bottle Company (1905–1916), Adolphus Busch and Company (1904–1907), and Cannington Shaw and Company (1875–1913) were found in Levels 1 and 2. Shards representing at least 33 whiskey bottles made by the Hayner Distilling Company were the most-prevalent alcoholic-beverage containers collected in this feature. Hayner Distilling was a large company, operating distilleries in seven cities across the United States between 1897 and 1916. A large mail-order distribution system allowed Hayner to even reach “dry” areas of the country until 1913, when the Webb-Kenyon Interstate Liquor Act prohibited the shipment of liquor to dry states (Wilson and Wilson 1968:79). Shards from the Hayner bottles were only identified in Levels 2 and 3. Hayner bottles represented about 67 percent of the distilled-spirits collection and 24 percent of all alcohol-related glass in this feature. Privy Pit 10095 yielded clothing fasteners and fabric, most of which were recovered in the upper to middle stratigraphic layers. Undecorated buttons were the most-prevalent clothing fastener. Men’s, women’s, and babies’ clothing is indicated. All buttons were sew-through types, with sizes suggesting shirts, dresses, vests, or pants. Hooks and eyes, present in all strata except Level 4, may represent ladies undergarments and/or dresses. A large safety pin was present in Level 4. Garter/hosiery hardware (a small brass buckle) was recovered in Level 2. Finely woven, black fabric fragments of an unknown type were present in Level 1. Just over a dozen brown shoe fragments representing at least one leather shoe with brass lacing eyelets were recovered from the feature. Five of the six stratigraphic layers of Privy Pit 10095 held personal artifacts, the majority of which were observed in the upper and middle stratigraphic layers. Health/hygiene items were the most-prevalent personal artifacts from this lot. These consisted of at least one bottle, two tins, a glass eyedropper, and rubber fragments. The bottle was embossed “RUBIFOAM/FOR THE/TEETH/PUT UP BY/E. W. HOYT & Co/ LOWELL, MASS”. Rubifoam was a liquid, alcohol-based dentifrice made between 1887 and 1920 (Hoyt and Hoyt 2009). Rubber fragments indicated either a fountain syringe or a squeeze bulb used for the nose. One round, short tin once contained a beauty or cosmetic preparation. Other tin fragments were from a square can that may have held talcum powder. Two milk-glass jars were recovered, one embossed “MODJESKA COLD CREAM/BUFFALO NY/LARKEN SOAP MFC CO”. No product or company information was 140 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) found. Accessories from this pit included a ferrous, circular pin or brooch fragment. A brass pocket watch with an open face exhibited Roman numerals, a second dial, a winding stem, and a D-ring. Similar watches were advertised in the Sears catalog for 1902, selling for 94 cents and $1.69 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1902:29). A total of 127 medicine bottles and fragments (MVC = 110) were recovered and were found in all stratigraphic units of Privy Pit 10095. Approximately 64 percent (n = 81; MVC = 73) of medicinal glass was hand-finished, and 36 percent (n = 46; MVC = 37) was unidentified or completely machine-made. The density of medicinal glass throughout the feature was 0.45 per cubic foot (0.013/m³). These artifacts were concentrated in Levels 1–4, which contained 98 percent (n = 125; MVC = 108) of medicinal glass. Medicinerelated glass was most frequent and dense in Level 2, which yielded 69 percent (n = 87; MVC = 76) and had a density of 1.85 per cubic foot (0.052/m³). Bottle manufacturers’ marks and medicinal products were identified for 41 vessels throughout Privy Pit 10095 and included items in production as early as 1850 and products still available today. These are summarized in Table 14. Proprietary medicines were identified in all stratigraphic levels, and only one local pharmacist (the Arcadian Pharmacy) was represented in Level 3. Overwhelmingly, medicines were used to treat gastrointestinal ailments (see Table 14). Other medicines focused on cough treatments, throat ailments, or skin inflammation or disease. The majority of medicines and medicine bottles were made in the United States, except for Eno’s Fruit Salt which was a widely utilized medicine from the United Kingdom (Fike 2006:161). Privy Pit 10095 contained a whole rubber ball, a lead-alloy-spoked toy wheel, and three sherds of a parian toy mouse with a painted nose and black eyes. Very similar toy animals were made by the American Marble and Toy Manufacturing Company of Akron, Ohio. The company began automated production of these miniatures in 1884 (American Toy Marble Museum 2009:n.p.). The bowl of a plain, clay smoking pipe was recovered from Privy Pit 10095. The initials “T D,” which appear on pipes produced by a number of different companies during the late-nineteenth century (Petruzelli 2002), were stamped onto the stem side of the bowl. Level 2 of Privy Pit 10095 produced five colorless-glass shards from two conical ink bottles. Both bottles had “CARTER’S/MADE IN/U.S.A” embossed on the base, indicating they were produced by Carter’s Ink Company of Massachusetts. The company operated under this name from 1895 to 1975 (Faulkner and Faulkner 2003:41–43). Fifteen weaponry artifacts were recovered from Privy Pit 10095. Except for a single cartridge, all ammunition on this lot was shotgun shells, all of which were recovered from Levels 2–5. Level 2 contained the largest portion of ammunition on this lot, with 60 percent (n = 9). Level 3 yielded a cartridge and three shotgun shells, and Levels 4 and 5 each contained one shotgun shell. Ammunition in this feature was designed for use with hunting shotguns and rifles. Identified shotgun shells and manufacturers in Privy Pit 10095 are summarized in Table 15. The only cartridge was a .30 Winchester centerfire, which is synonymous with the 30-30 cartridge. Introduced in 1895, the Winchester 30-30 was the first small-bore, smokeless-powder sporting cartridge in the United States. Useful for large-game hunting, the 30-30 was quickly adopted by ammunition manufacturers around the world. It remains the standard of performance to which high-powered sporting cartridges are compared (Barnes 2006:56). A collection of 88 nails and nail fragments, screws, battery parts, and window-glass fragments from Privy Pit 10095 composed the construction-materials and machinery-related artifacts categories from Block 252, Lot 5. The density of construction-materials artifacts was very low in this feature (0.3/cubic foot or 0.008/ m³). Level 1 yielded the highest artifact density, with 0.87 per cubic foot (0.02/m³). Seventy-seven percent (n = 68) of construction-materials artifacts in this feature were common wire nails and nail fragments. Eighteen of the complete nails measured 6d (n = 1), 8d (n = 6), 10d (n = 3), 20d (n = 3), 30d (n = 4), and 60d (n = 1). The remaining artifacts (n = 20) included a fragment from a zinc battery core, a fragment of another dry-cell battery with the metal cathode intact, a window-glass fragment, a screw, a fence staple, a hinge, metal plumbing-pipe fragments (n = 2), and a hook. Three fragments from a hinged, boxwood wood rule were also identified. Privy Pit 10095 also produced 2 dry-cell-battery fragments, 3 lightbulb fragments, and 2 shards of lamp-chimney glass. Construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered from Refuse Pit 719. A total of 10 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered, including 5 wire-nail fragments, a window-glass fragment, and 4 miscellaneous wire fragments of different gauges typically used for fences. From two of the five stratigraphic layers of Privy Pit 10095 were recovered shards of a colorless-glass sewing-machine-oil bottle produced by the Singer Manufacturing Company between 1865 and 1963 (Singer Company 2009), and shards of an amber glass jug that held cleaning solution. An unidentified stamped-metal flower with a flowing stem was recovered and may have been part of a wreath or other floral arrangement. 141 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Temporally diagnostic household items from this feature are not helpful in refining our understanding of deposition activity, as they were in production both before and after this feature was in use, spanning a range from 1865 to 1963. A single shard of glass from a lamp chimney was recovered from excavations in Refuse Pit 719. The single stratigraphic layer of Refuse Pit 719 yielded sherds of at least one terracotta flowerpot and one bucket or pail stamped “JUNE”. Approximately one-half of the bone recovered from Privy Pit 10095 was found in Level 1 (Table 16). Bird bones included ducks or teal, chickens, turkey, quail, dove, and a robin-sized bird, though chickens and chicken-sized birds made up the greatest proportion of the bird bones. Cow-sized, sheep, sheep–/goat-sized, and unidentified-carnivore bones were found. Nearly equal proportions of bird and artiodactyl or similarly sized bone were found in this level. Over a third of the bones recovered were found in Level 2. These included bone fish and rockfish. Bird bone made up nearly half the total bone and included both wild and domesticated taxa, such as ducks or teals, chicken, turkey, quail, and mourning dove. Wild leporids, both cottontail and jackrabbit, were identified. Domestic cat was identified. These bones likely represent a pet, stray, or work animal disposed of in the privy, rather than food remains. Cow, sheep/goat, and similarly sized mammal bones were found. Approximately twice the number of cow and cow-sized bones as sheep–/goat-sized bones were recovered. Bird diversity remained high in Level 3, but fewer mammalian taxa were recovered. The overall bone counts also decreased in this and lower levels, and the drop in diversity in this and other levels may reflect the bone count. Bird bones made up slightly over half of the bone NISP. Leporid, squirrelsized mammal, and indeterminate mammal bones were also found. Cow-sized and sheep-sized bone was present, and the only pig bone recovered from Lot 5 deposits was found in Level 3 of this feature. Eggshell was noted. Birds made up more than three-quarters of the total NISP of Level 4 and were primarily chicken or chicken-sized taxa, with much lower numbers of turkey and dove bones. The remaining bones were the ubiquitous cow, cow-sized, and sheep–/goat-sized mammals. Most of the bones from Level 5 were identified only as indeterminate cow-sized mammals, followed by chicken and chicken-sized birds. Quail- or dove-sized birds and sheep/goat were also represented. Only a few bones were found in Level 6, including chicken and chicken-sized bird, sheep/goat, and cow-sized mammal. The faunal material from Refuse Pit 719 included bones and fragments from a variety of taxa, such as artiodactyls, wild and domesticated taxa, leporids, carnivores, birds, and mammals (Table 17). Bone from cow-sized taxa made up the bulk of the collection, including a few fragments identified to cow and many fragments that likely represented cattle but retained no diagnostic marks. Bones were recovered from limbs, ribs, vertebrae, scapula, and pelvis, as well as a few cranial fragments, and most of the body was represented, with the exception of feet and lower legs. The greatest numbers of identified bones were vertebrae and rib fragments. Deer-sized taxa contributed 10 percent of the total and included sheep or goat bone, pronghorn, indeterminate artiodactyl, and indeterminate deer-sized-mammal bone. All bone from deer-sized taxa was postcranial and included a few front and hind limbs and axial fragments. A single sheep or goat bone was identified. The pronghorn bone consisted of fore and hind limb bones, including a left and right radius, right distal tibia, and right astragalus. At least three indeterminate deer-sized individuals were present, as well as one sheep and one pronghorn. Leporid bone included cottontail and unidentified rabbit or hare and consisted of axial and limb fragments, all of which could represent a single individual. Unidentified large birds were represented by long-bone midsections. Block 252, Lot 9b Artifacts recovered from features on Block 252, Lot 9b, were few and did not include any examples from the following categories: ceramic tablewares, glass and metal tablewares, liquor containers, medicine containers, clothing/clothing fasteners, footwear, personal items, recreation, smoking paraphernalia, communication, weaponry, transportation, construction materials/hardware, household items, faunal remains, or invertebrate remains. The only food-vessel type recovered from this lot was a minimum of one hand-finished bottle recovered from a sample of Refuse Pit 22406. The milk bottle was represented by one finish manufactured after around 1899 (Lindsey 2009). 142 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) Block 252, Lot 10 No artifacts in the commerce or invertebrate categories were recovered from this lot. Three refuse pits (Features 17549, 22398, and 22399) yielded 74 ceramic sherds from 16 tableware vessels. In all, ceramics on this lot were composed of semivitreous, white-bodied earthenware (n = 37; MVC = 7); hardpaste porcelain (n = 27; MVC = 8); and stoneware sherds (n = 10; MVC = 1). Relief molding and enameling were the only identified ceramic decorative techniques in this collection. Refuse Pits 17549 and 22398 contained 39 percent of sherds on this lot (n = 29) and had 50 percent of identified vessels (MVC = 8). Each feature contained a single stratigraphic unit. Refuse Pit 22398 contained 10 fragments of an undecorated stoneware crock. Ceramics in Refuse Pit 17549 were sherds from two bowls, a saucer, and four plates. Both bowls were porcelain with scalloped relief molding and gilded fleur-de-lis along the rim. These vessels were made by the Austrian firm, Limoges (1862–1963) (http://www.marks4ceramics.com). The semivitreous-earthenware saucer in this feature was decorated with floral-motif relief molding and an overglaze, floral, polychrome decal and was made by the British firm, Johnson Brothers (1900–1920) (marks4ceramics.com). Plates in Refuse Pit 17549 included a semivitreous-earthenware vessel and three hardpaste-porcelain vessels. The semivitreous plate was undecorated, and the porcelain plates all had relief-molded rims and polychrome, floral-motif decals. One of these vessels was marked “Victoria/ Austria” and dated from 1904 to 1918 (marks4ceramics.com). Refuse Pit 22399 contained the majority of ceramic sherds on Block 252, Lot 10 (n = 45), composing half of the identified vessels. Various tableware items composed the identified vessel forms in Refuse Pit 22399. Hardpaste porcelain (n = 10; MVC = 3) and semivitreous, white earthenware (n = 35; MVC = 5) sherds were recovered from throughout the feature. This feature included three stratigraphic units, and 89 percent (n = 40) of sherds were recovered from Stratum III, the lowest stratum of the deposit. Fragments from an unidentified porcelain vessel were recovered from Stratum I, and a semivitreous-earthenware, handled cup was identified in Stratum II. The remaining five vessels came from Stratum III. Handled-cup sherds included a hardpaste-porcelain and a semivitreous-earthenware vessel with relief-molded handles. Hardpaste-porcelain saucer sherds with blue transfer-print Chinoiserie decoration and semivitreous-earthenware-saucer sherds with a gilded band along the rim were also found in this stratum. The sherds from the semivitreous-earthenware saucer and matching cup with a polychrome, floral decal were made by Homer Laughlin in 1922 (Lehner 1988:246). Sherds representing a green-glazed, semivitreous teapot were also recovered from this stratum. A total of 262 historical-period Native American ceramic sherds were recovered from the Brown/Steward property, composed of Lots 3–5 and 8–10 of Block 252. These sherds were recovered from Features 719, 10095, 10099, 10895, 22398, and 22399 and were overwhelmingly from Papago Red ollas (n = 225; 86 percent). Other Native American sherds from this portion of the project area included Papago Brown (n = 32) and plain (n = 3) sherds and indeterminate Papago ceramic sherds (n = 2). Nonceramic-tableware and culinary artifacts (n = 37; MVC = 8) were recovered from Refuse Pits 17549, 22398, 22399, and 22432. Sixty-eight percent (n = 25) of these artifacts were fragments of a blue and white enamelware pot or pan recovered from Refuse Pit 22398. Other features on this lot had a much lower number of nonceramic-tableware artifacts. From Refuse Pit 17549 were collected two shards from a colorless-glass tumbler etched with a leaf-and-vine pattern. Refuse Pit 22432 had two shards from a colorless-pressed-glass mug. Refuse Pit 22399 was the only stratified deposit on this lot with nonceramic-tableware artifacts (n = 9), all of which were recovered from Strata II and III. A colorless-pressed-glass shard from a tumbler was recovered in Stratum II. Eight colorless-pressed-glass-tumbler shards from two different vessels were found in Stratum III. Tumblers in this stratum were similar to the Hotel and Preserve line advertised in the Sears catalog for 1906 at a price of $0.45 per dozen (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:363). Three refuse pits (Features 17549, 22398, and 22399) held whole vessels and fragments representing a minimum of 41 glass and metal containers, including 14 bottles, 6 jars, 6 cans, and 15 bottle/jar closures. The majority of food/beverage glass from this lot was machine-made (79 percent, n = 11), and only crowncap closures were recovered in Refuse Pit 17549. Refuse Pit 22398, containing the largest portion of food/ beverage containers on this lot, included shards and fragments of bottles, canning jars, cans, and bottle/jar closures from two stratigraphic levels. Evidence of at least 1 soft-drink, 1 unidentified-beverage, 1 condiment, and 1 food bottle was recovered. Of note is a beverage bottle embossed “WALKER’S/ERIE, P.A./ GRAPE JUICE”, dating as late as 1913 (Cherington 1913), and a condiment jar embossed “ARMOUR’S/ TOP NOTCH BRAND/CHICAGO”. Armour’s specialized in canned-meat products after 1879, and Zumwalt (1980:29–30) described two sizes of this jar. At least 1 canning jar was present, embossed “B[ALL]/ PE[RFECT]/MAS[ON]”. The Perfect was introduced around 1900 and continued in production until at least 143 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 1935 (Toulouse 1969:37–38). It appears there was a consistent distribution of food and beverage bottles and jars throughout the two stratigraphic layers. The majority of the canning jars and cans in this lot come from this feature. It was not possible to determine original contents for the majority of cans, though all were sanitary. At least 1 can was key-opened, suggesting contents that ranged from processed meats to coffee. The presence of canned-heat cans suggests one possibility that a cooking/heating activity not involving a wood or gas stove was undertaken by the residents (see Chapter 16, Cesspit 3040, for further discussion of the various uses of canned heat). Temporally diagnostic food and beverage containers from this feature indicate deposition between 1867 and 1915. Refuse Pit 22399 yielded food and beverage containers consisting of bottles, canning jars, cans, and bottle/ jar closures from all three stratigraphic layers. The majority of bottles and closures in this lot came from this feature. There was evidence of at least one soft-drink, two unidentified-beverage, and one condiment bottle in the lowest stratigraphic layer. Closures such as crown caps, a “Kork ‘n Seal” cap, and cork also represented bottles. These closures were observed in the middle and bottom stratigraphic layers. A salad-dressing bottle from the E. R. Durkee Company (Figure 47) dates from as early as 1857 (Zumwalt 1980:128–129) and remained in production as late as 1897, when it was advertised at from 25 cents to 42 cents a bottle in the Sears catalog (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]:n.p.). Specific contents remain unidentified for most bottles from this feature, but the number of beverage bottles present indicates that residents were discarding more drinking vessels than food containers. Some home-canning activity was taking place in the household, as evidenced by at least one canning jar, embossed “KERR [MANUFACTURING CO]/ PA[TENT]/AUG[UST]/191[?]/SAND SPRINGS, OKL[AHOMA]”, present in the lowest stratum. Given the number of colorless jar shards in this feature, additional home-canning jars and commercially canned goods appear to be represented. Metal cans were observed in the upper and middle stratigraphic layers. Sanitary cans and a key opener were present. Temporally diagnostic food and beverage containers from this feature indicate that the refuse pit could have been deposited as early as the first residential activity on the lot and that it continued until the lot was developed for commercial use. Three refuse-pit features on this lot (Features 17549, 22398, and 22399) yielded a total of 51 alcohol bottles and alcohol-bottle shards from at least 27 vessels. Alcohol-bottle glass from this lot was mostly from machine-made bottles. Of the 51 shards on this lot, only 3 exhibited characteristics of hand-manufacturing or hand-finishing. Consumption of beer, wine and/or champagne, and distilled spirits is indicated by the presence of shards from these types of bottles. Seventy-two percent of vessels (n = 37; MVC = 18) contained beer, and 18 percent (n = 9; MVC = 4) contained wine or champagne. Ten percent of alcohol-bottle glass (n = 5; MVC = 5) was from bottles containing distilled spirits. No specific products were identified, but bottles were made by manufacturers that operated between 1900 and 1929. Two of the features (Refuse Pits 17549 and 22398) contained the remains of a combined total of 7 (n = 12) alcohol bottles. Eighty-three percent of bottle shards (n = 10) from these two features represented at least 6 beer bottles; the remainder were from wine or champagne bottles. Although no datable alcohol bottles were identified in Feature 17549, a beer bottle made by the American Bottle Company indicates Feature 22398 was deposited after 1905 (Toulouse 1971:30–33). Feature 22399 was a stratified refuse pit that yielded a total of 39 alcohol-bottle shards (MVC = 20), 92 percent of which (n = 36) were recovered from Stratum III, the lowest stratigraphic layer. Sixty-nine percent of shards (n = 27; MVC = 12) represented beer bottles. Eighteen percent of fragments (n = 7) were from at least 3 wine or champagne vessels, and 13 percent (n = 5) were from about 5 distilled-spirits bottles. Makers’ marks from the North Baltimore Bottle Glass Company, the Charles Boldt Glass Company, and the Owens Bottle Company indicate this feature was deposited after 1903. The Owens Bottle Company (1903–1929) was one of the precursors to Owens-Illinois, formed through a merger with the Illinois Glass Company (Toulouse 1971:393–397; Whitten 2009). Three refuse pits (Features 17549, 22398, and 22399) yielded complete and fragmented clothing fasteners and fabric. The majority of clothing fasteners from this lot were recovered from Refuse Pit 22399, and undecorated buttons were the most-prevalent clothing fastener. Clothing fabric was only recovered from Refuse Pit 22399. A 19-line, shell, sew-through button in Refuse Pit 17549 may have been used on a shirt. Refuse Pit 22398 (Stratum 1) yielded sew-through buttons likely used on men’s suspenders or a shirt. Two of the three stratigraphic layers in Refuse Pit 22399 yielded sew-through buttons, garter/hosiery hardware, and safety pins. This feature contained the widest variety of clothing fasteners in this lot. Buttons were most concentrated in the lowest stratigraphic layer (Stratum III). Sizes of the buttons indicate the use of shirts and/or dresses, vests, pants, and suspenders. Garter/hosiery hardware (small brass buckles) and safety pins 144 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) were present in the lowest stratigraphic layer. At least one large safety pin was also present. A finely woven, black fabric of unknown type was present in the middle stratigraphic layer (Stratum II). Four refuse pits (Features 17549, 22398, 22399 and 22342) produced personal artifacts, including health/ hygiene items, beauty/cosmetic items, and jewelry; the majority was beauty/cosmetics items. Refuse Pit 17549 contained a whole metal menthol inhaler stamped “SHARP & DOHME”. A precise date for this artifact could not be determined; Sharp & Dohme merged with Merck & Company in 1953 (Merck and Company 2009) but continued to use its original name outside the United States after that date. Refuse Pit 22398 (Stratum I) contained beauty/cosmetic items and health/hygiene artifacts. Fragments of at least one bottle and four milk-glass jars and two whole milk-glass jars represented beauty/cosmetic items. The bottle once contained hand or body cream or lotion (Fike 2006:92) and was embossed “A.S. HINDS/A.S.H./PORTLAND ME./U.S.[A]”. This product was marketed as early as 1890 and as late as 1930 (Toulouse 1971:54). Though original contents of the milk-glass jars from this feature remain unidentified, identical jars were advertised in the Sears catalog for 1906, containing Bust, Scalp, and Skin Food and selling for 20 cents to $1.42 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:852–853). One of the jars from this pit was embossed “MENLEY-JAMES/ MADE/IN/U.S.A./NEW YORK-LONDON”. The company is known to have produced ointments and other preparations; dates of operation could not be determined. A black, hard-rubber or unidentified-plastic comb fragment was recovered. Containing the largest portion and widest variety of personal artifacts on this lot, Refuse Pit 22399 produced heath/hygiene items, jewelry, beauty/cosmetics, and other personal artifacts from two of the three stratigraphic layers. Container closures were also recovered. Health/hygiene items were represented by a glass rod applicator that may have been used for iodine, a brass container with a perforated external-friction lid, a glass thermometer embossed “26684 P-D PRESTO 60 SEC Becton Dickinson & Co”, and a straightrazor blade. The perforated lid suggests the container held talcum or some other powder (Putnam 1965:40). Becton, Dickinson, and Company was incorporated in 1906 and began producing thermometers, syringes, and hypodermic needles; the company continues to produce oral thermometers today under the name “BD” (Becton, Dickinson and Company 2010:n.p.). A brass lapel pin or brooch with blue and white glass “jewels” and an eyeglass lens were also recovered. Beauty/cosmetics artifacts were represented by an aluminum cap and shards from glass bottles (MVC = 9) and jars (MVC = 6). Five of the nine bottles were beauty or cosmetic vessels; specifically two bottles contained A. S. Hinds hand or body cream or lotion. Illinois Glass produced both of the A. S. Hinds bottles between 1915 and 1929 (Toulouse 1971:54). Two sprinkler-top bottles used for hair tonic or toilet water and a perfume bottle with a threaded zinc cap was stamped “W C/ CO INC.”. One of the A. S. Hinds bottles had a threaded metal cap, and Owens-Illinois produced one of the sprinkler-top bottles between 1911 and 1929 (Toulouse 1971:393). The specific contents of the remaining beauty and cosmetic jars remain unidentified. Five of the jars were milk glass and were likely used for cold cream, ointment, and/or salve. Four of the milk-glass jars were embossed “ELMO”. Hazel Atlas made one of the milk-glass jars between 1920 and 1964 (Toulouse 1971:239). Specific cosmetic contents were not identified for all glass jars. Temporally diagnostic personal artifacts from this feature indicate deposition between 1911 and 1964. The fill of Refuse Pit 22342 was sampled and contained a ferrous, white, enameled cover for a blood-pressure gauge, with the maker’s mark (an “M” inside a star) and graduations from 60 to 280. The excavation of four refuse pits (Features 17549, 22398, 22399, and 22432) on Block 252, Lot 10, resulted in the recovery of 147 medicinal bottles, medical-equipment items, and fragments of medicine-related artifacts. Except for Feature 22399, medical glass was only recovered from a single stratigraphic level within each feature. The majority of medicinal glass from this lot was machine-made, with only 2 percent (n = 3; MVC = 3) exhibiting characteristics of hand-manufacturing. Ninety-six percent (n = 140; MVC = 95) of medicinal glass came from two features. Feature 22399 had 73 percent (n = 107; MVC = 76) and an artifact density of 11.1 per cubic foot (0.31/m³), which was the highest density of medicine-related artifacts of any feature at this site. Feature 22398 contained 24 percent (n = 35; MVC = 21) and had a density of 2.63 per cubic foot (0.074/m³). The remaining 3 percent (n = 5; MVC = 5), recovered from Features 17549 (0.45/ cubic foot or 0.012/m³) and 22432, included fragments of a glass tube, a complete prescription-medicine bottle, and fragments of a Pearl-style prescription bottle. Although there was a Pearl Glass Company in the United States, this mark indicates the bottle was a Pearl oval sold by the Meyer Brothers Drug Company of St. Louis between 1900 and 1910 (Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:45). Medicinal glass in Feature 22398 represented medicine bottles and equipment from the early-twentieth century. Eighty-three percent (n = 29; MVC = 15) of medicine-related glass artifacts in Feature 22398 were bottle fragments, and 17 percent (n = 6; MVC = 6) were cylindrical glass tubing that may have been from ampoules or test tubes. All medical glass in this feature was machine-made. The test tubes did not have makers’ 145 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest marks or marks from manufacturing techniques. Medicine bottles were made as early as 1890, based on identified products and makers’ marks. These include shards from three bottles made by the Standard Glass Company (1920–1930), two bottles made for the Wellcome Chemical Works (1890–1900s), a Neurosine bottle made by the Illinois Pacific Glass Company (1902–1930), a bottle made by the Obear-Nester Glass Company (1915–1980), and a Listerine bottle made for the Lambert Pharmaceutical Company (1894–1915) (Fike 2006:67; Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:89; Toulouse 1971:87, 268; Whitten 2009). Bottle contents identified in Feature 22398 represented products used to maintain dental health and treat neurological conditions and respiratory ailments. Listerine, made by Lambert Pharmaceutical Company since 1879, is an oral rinse with antibacterial properties (Fike 2006:67). The medicine Neurosine, made by the Dios Chemical Company, used a bromide sedative as an active ingredient. Bromides, including the widely used potassium bromide, have historically been used to treat a range of neurological ailments, including epilepsy, hysteria, insomnia, and delirium tremens (Campbell 1925:32–309; Merck and Company 1940:1385; Spiller 1903:868). A Vicks Vaporub jar (1898–present) represents a common treatment for respiratory ailments that remains popular today (Hinds-Brown 2002:2). The largest portion of medicinal glass on this lot was recovered from Feature 22399, which contained 73 percent (n = 107; MVC = 76) of these artifacts. Seventy-nine percent (n = 85; MVC = 68) were from medicinal bottles and 21 percent (n = 22; MVC = 8) were cylindrical glass tubing that may have been from ampoules or test tubes. Identified bottle manufacturers and medicines were made after 1860; most were made after 1889. Except for fragments from a Wyeth bottle, all identified vessels were recovered from Stratum III of this feature and have been summarized in Table 18. Identified glass manufacturers were located in the United States, and identified medicinal products were designed to treat common ailments (see Table 18). Prior to its merger with the Owens Bottle Company, the Illinois Glass Company (1915–1929) was one of the largest glass makers in the nation. Illinois Glass introduced the popular “Lyric” oval prescription bottle in 1928. Fragments from an Illinois Glass “Lyric” were recovered from this feature; this bottle was one of the most popular machine-made bottles in the United States during the early-twentieth century (Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:46). Finally, medicinal products in Refuse Pit 22399 included bottles made for large pharmaceutical companies and for specific medicines (see Table 18). Sharpe and Dohme and the Wyeth Company were large, domestic medicine companies that made a range of products. Both companies were founded in 1860, and the two merged in 1953 (Fike 2006:152, 180). Medicines in Refuse Pit 22399 included remedies for neurological and gastrointestinal ailments. The remains of an antiseptic-mouthwash bottle were also recovered. Fifteen artifacts relating to recreation were recovered from Refuse Pit 22399. Two artifacts were fragments from a single nonferrous, commemorative metal token (Figure 48) stamped “. . . KANS MILDRED . . ./ [a star symbol with an eagle in the center]” on the front and “[PAT.] 5-15-23/GEO. W HEENE/CLEVELAND[, O.]” written inside a star on the back side. Tokens with the Heene maker’s mark were produced as arcade tokens. Changeable letters allowed the buyer to mark the coin with a personalized sentiment. Nearly identical examples recently sold in online auctions; both bore the Heene maker’s mark and patent date and had American flags in the center of the star. One was marked “FROM MARGE WITH LOVE AND KISSES” and the other “B.E.MATTESON BROCKTON MASS.” (Time Passages Nostalgia Company 2009). The 1923 patent date reveals that the token was produced during or after 1923. Half of a white-and-green-glass marble was also recovered. This feature also produced nine parian sherds from a doll’s face, the ceramic back of a doll’s eye, and four pieces of white glass, likely from the same doll’s eye. The back of the doll’s head was embossed “GERMANY/971/3/[A] . . . 0 . . . M/A/D.R.G.M 267/1”, indicating that the doll was produced by the Armand Marseille company. The first number, 971, is the mold number. The “A” and “M” are the company initials, and the partial number between them (0) is part of the designation for the doll size. The abbreviation “D.R.G.M.” stands for Deutsches Reichsgebrauchmuster, translating to “design patent” in German. According to the Doll Reference (n.d.), mold 971 (as well as 20 other molds) was very similar to 10-inch Character Baby–mold 985, which had a “bisque head, glass eyes, painted upper and lower eyelashes, feathered [painted] eyebrows, open or closed mouth [this one is open], wig . . . [and a] composition jointed baby bent limb body.” Dates of production were not determined; the company operated from 1885 into the 1950s. Fourteen smoking-related artifacts were recovered from three refuse-pit features in Lot 10 of Block 252. Twelve of these artifacts were pocket-tobacco-tin fragments, 2 from Refuse Pit 22398 and 10 from Refuse Pit 22399. The remaining 2 artifacts, both from Refuse Pit 22432, consisted of the rubber stem and metal shank of a Wellington model smoking pipe, produced in the United States by the William Demuth Company from the end of the nineteenth century to ca. 1976 (Pipedia 2008). 146 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) Four communication-related artifacts were recovered from refuse-pit features in Block 252, Lot 10. Refuse Pit 17549, Stratum I, produced a single piece of pencil lead. One pencil-lead fragment and two partial glass ink bottles were excavated from Refuse Pit 22399; one of the bottles was embossed “WATERMAN’S INK”. Lewis Waterman founded the Ideal Pen Company in 1884 (National Inventors Hall of Fame 2002); the company name was changed to Waterman some time later. A shotgun shell and a cartridge casing were recovered from two refuse pits (Features 17549 and 22399) on Block 252, Lot 10. The shotgun shell from Refuse Pit 17549 was a 20-gauge Winchester Repeater made by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company (1866–present) (Goodman 1998:n.p.; White and Munhall 1963:26–27). The 20-gauge shotgun is primarily used for fowl hunting and skeet shooting (Barnes 2006:501). Feature 22399 contained a .38-caliber cartridge made by the Union Metallic Cartridge Company (1867– 1911) and designed for Smith and Wesson hinge-framed revolvers that were introduced in 1877. This was a widely used cartridge that was adopted by police and militaries specifically in the United States and United Kingdom. It remains a popular light-weight gun useful for short-range defense (Barnes 2006:301; Goodman 1998:n.p.). A total of six transportation-related artifacts were identified in Refuse Pit 22399. These artifacts were recovered from all three of the stratigraphic units of this feature and were most prevalent in Stratum III, the lowest level of the deposit. Automobile parts (n = 5) were the most-frequent transportation artifact in this feature and included a Champion spark plug in Stratum I, the exhaust manifold for an engine in Stratum II, and fragments from a Boyce MotoMeter radiator cap and radiator gauge from Stratum III. Champion spark plugs were the invention of Albert Champion who introduced the AC spark plug to motor vehicles in 1904. In 1908, Champion spark plugs became part of Buick, which was absorbed into General Motors in 1927 (Crane 2009). Champion’s invention is still in production today. The Boyce MotoMeter was patented in 1912 and was an engine-coolant-temperature gauge. Because it was on the top of the hood at the front of the vehicle, it also played the role of a hood ornament (Koma 2009). A horseshoe nail recovered from Stratum III was the only other transportation artifact in this feature. Construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts (n = 383) were recovered from four refuse pits (Features 17549, 22398, 22399, and 22432). These artifacts were primarily brick fragments, nails, window glass, and hardware items, such as electrical wire, hinges, and metal pipe fragments. Refuse Pit 17549 contained 43 percent (n = 167) of all construction-material artifacts on this lot. All of the construction-materials artifacts in this feature were nail heads and fragments, only 1 of which was a cut nail. Eleven common wire nails in this feature were complete enough to record measurements. Identified pennyweights included 3d (n = 2), 4d (n = 2), 5d (n = 1), 6d (n = 2), 7d (n = 1), 8d (n = 1), and 9d (n = 2). All of these sizes were employed in general construction tasks, but the smaller-sized nails, 3d–5d, were also used for boxes. Refuse Pit 22432 yielded a total of 8 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts, including fragments of a paint can containing grayish-white paint fragments. A strap hinge and 2 sections of metal pipe were also recovered. One of these pipe fragments was chrome plated, a technique that has been utilized for most of the twentieth century but became most common after World War II (Light 2000:10). Refuse Pit 22398 contained 65 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts that were distributed in both stratigraphic units of this feature. The overall density of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in this feature was 5.01 per cubic foot (0.14/m³). The density of artifacts, which were 22 wire nails, was highest in Stratum I, at 12.2 per cubic foot (0.34/m³). A single roofing tack was also identified among these wire nails. Construction-materials artifacts in Refuse Pit 22398 were more diverse in Stratum II but were less dense, at 3.95 per cubic foot (0.11/m³). Stratum II contained a low-fired-brick fragment, a wood screw, and a window-glass fragment. Nail fragments in Stratum II (n = 40) were primarily wire nails, except for a single cut-nail fragment. Construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts (n = 136) in Refuse Pit 22399 were recovered from all three stratigraphic units of this feature and were primarily nails, window glass, and other fasteners. Construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in Stratum I (n = 6) had a density of 5.45 per cubic foot (0.15/m³). Artifacts in this category included 2 wire-nail fragments, a mounting bracket, a brass washer, and 2 bolts. In Stratum II, construction-materials artifacts (n = 33) had a density of 12.89 per cubic foot (0.37/m³) and consisted of tar-paper fragments (n = 5), window glass (n = 2), and a strap hinge. Twenty-one wire nails and 2 cut nails were also recovered from this stratum, of which 17 could be measured. Complete nails were 3d (n = 5), 4d (n = 1), 6d (n = 3), 7d (n = 1), 8d (n = 5), 9d (n = 1), and 16d (n = 1). Stratum III contained 96 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts, which was 71 percent of all hardware-related artifacts in this feature. The density of these artifacts was also highest in Stratum III, at 16.3 per cubic foot (0.46/m³). Sixty-four wire nails and 2 cut nails were identified in this stratum. Wire nails included 13 complete nails, measuring 2d (n = 1), 4d (n = 7), 5d (n = 1), 9d (n = 2), 10d (n = 1), and 147 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 20d (n = 1), and 4 roofing tacks. In addition to nails, construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in this stratum included a brick fragment, a metal water-pipe fragment, a window-glass fragment, a metal crimp fastener, three screws, and an eye screw. Four refuse-deposit features in Block 252, Lot 10, produced over 50 artifacts relating to electricity and lighting. Most of these artifacts are base and bulb fragments from standard lightbulbs: 8 from Refuse Pit 17549, 4 from Refuse Pit 22398, 3 from Refuse Pit 22432, and dozens (including both colorless‑ and opaque-glass shards) from Stratum III of Refuse Pit 22399. One glass shard from an opaque lightbulb in Refuse Pit 22399 is marked with “MA” with a slanted line beneath the “A”. The same feature also contained 3 porcelain sherds from the threaded part of a lighting fixture. Refuse Pits 22398 and 22399 yielded household artifacts consisting of hardware, containers, and other artifacts. Refuse Pit 22398 held two fragments of at least two buckets, one ferrous and one nonferrous. Refuse Pit 22399 included a ferrous furniture glide. A similar example of the furniture glide was advertised in the Belknap Hardware & Manufacturing Company catalog, selling for 10 cents a set in 1955 (1955:1295). Also found in Refuse Pit 22399 were a ferrous soap dish and unfired, gray clay sherds from an unidentified zoomorphic figurine. Just over 150 vertebrate specimens were recovered from Refuse Pit 17549. Specimens represent a range of taxa, including a few bones from an indeterminate reptile and bones of mourning dove, rock dove, rabbit or hare, chicken, and chicken-sized bird (Table 19). Sheep-sized taxa were common, and the largest categories consisted of cow-sized taxa and indeterminate mammals, which together contributed about three-quarters of the total collection. Refuse Pit 22432 included only 2 bone fragments. One, a femur midsection, was identified as cow, and the second is a rib fragment of a cow-sized mammal. About 250 animal bones were recovered from two strata of Refuse Pit 22398, Stratum I and II (Table 20). Of these, far more were found in Stratum II. Stratum I contained only a few bones each of chicken, chicken-sized bird, cow-sized mammal, and indeterminate mammal. The materials from Stratum II included bone from an indeterminate duck or teal, chicken, chicken-sized bird, indeterminate gallinaceous bird, and turkey. The bird bone was dominated by chicken and chicken-sized bone, which composed nearly half the total avian bone in this stratum. Mammalian bone included a few leporid, rabbit-sized, sheep/goat, and cow bones and more than 50 fragments of bone from cow-sized mammals, more than 10 from sheep-sized mammals, and over a hundred fragments of bone of indeterminate mammals. No amphibian, fish, or reptile bone was recovered. Faunal material was recovered from three strata in this feature (Table 21). Only one fragment was found in Stratum I. This was a bone of a chicken-sized bird. Nearly 30 bones were found in Stratum II, including a few bones each of chicken-sized bird, cow, and sheep–/goat-sized mammal. The vast majority of the bone from this stratum was assigned to the indeterminate-cow-sized-mammal class. Well over half the bone from this feature was recovered from Stratum III, which contained a wider variety of taxa than the other two and included halibut, chicken and chicken-sized bird, squirrel-sized mammal, cow-sized mammal, and sheep–/goat-sized mammal. Most of the bone was assigned to cow-sized mammals, followed by nearly equal numbers of sheep–/ goat-sized-mammal and chicken-sized-bird remains. A few bones could only be identified as indeterminate mammal and vertebrate. No invertebrate shell was identified in Lot 10. Macrobotanical remains on Block 252, Lot 10, were composed of domesticated fruits, grain staples, and locally occurring plants (see Table 6). The three refuse pits on this lot yielded remains from eight plant species. Identified fruits were figs, raspberries, grapes, and elderberries, including species indigenous to the southwest and imported domesticates. Grains included wheat and corn, both extensively grown in the Tucson Basin by the end of the nineteenth century. Horse purslane found on this lot is a fleshy, wild succulent with high nutritional value (Baïacli-Levy 1976; Dunmire and Tierney 1995:179). Some species are native to Arizona, but it is unknown whether this plant was part of the diet of historical-period residents. Charred mesquite-wood fragments were probably a naturally occurring fuel source used within this household. Chronology, Correlation, and Summary To summarize the artifactual analysis results from Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10, Privy Pit 10095 was clearly associated with the tenure of the John Brown family and therefore provides a sound glimpse into the lives of one family in the project area. Although it was located behind the Brown residence, it likely also included material culture representative of daughter Amelia Steward’s family, next door. All temporally diagnostic 148 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) artifacts from this privy indicated deposition during the Browns’ tenure, allowing for tangible interpretations of the family’s consumption and disposal practices. Privy Pit 10095 contained numerous vessels from matching sets, and two of these sets were also recovered on other lots in the project area. The stratigraphic distribution of ceramics indicates that vessels in this feature were deposited throughout time, as they broke. Items from the “Orleans” line and matching vessels made by Burgess and Leigh and Johnson Brothers were part of three different sets and were recovered from multiple levels. Although tableware vessels are frequently chipped, they are not as frequently rendered unusable via breakage. So, the sporadic distribution of individual vessels from larger sets reinforces the hypothesis that ceramics in this feature were not deposited at once but, rather, represent unfortunate accidents over time. Interestingly, “Orleans” and “Golden Gate” ceramics were also identified in other archaeological features across the project area. It is likely that historical-period residents of the project area shopped at some of the same local merchants and had access to the same selection of material culture. Therefore, purchases were primarily limited by funds available to spend, rather than access to markets. In pursuit of fashionable material culture and influenced by neighbors, residents were likely to purchase similar ceramic sets. Alcoholic-beverage containers were recovered only from the upper three strata of Privy Pit 10095, suggesting that a change in disposal or consumption of alcohol occurred during the latter years of the Browns’ tenure on the lot. Approximately equivalent proportions of spirits bottles and wine/champagne bottles were identified, with beer containers representing the minority. Demographic information about the site occupants can also be gleaned from the collection. Clothing artifacts indicated the presence of at least one man, one woman, and one baby. Five infant- or invalid-supplement bottles were recovered from the privy pit. Personal artifacts included dentifrices and women’s health and beauty preparations. Three toy fragments from the privy pit indicate that at least one child lived in or visited the household. Some household activities may be inferred from the Privy Pit 10095 collection. The presence of a smoking-pipe fragment suggests that at least one individual in the household (or a guest) participated in smoking as a recreational activity. Fifteen examples of game hunting and rifle ammunition were recovered from this feature, suggesting that household occupants participated in hunting recreationally or to supplement household stores. Among artifacts recovered from this feature were sewing-machine-oil-can fragments, indicating that household occupants manufactured or repaired clothing. The faunal collection from Privy Pit 10095 was diverse and included fish, bird, and mammal bones and both wild and domestic taxa. Mammals included carnivores, artiodactyls, and leporids. Fish were recovered only in Levels 1 and 2. Pig bones were represented only minimally in this feature and were not found elsewhere in Lot 5. Cattle bones and bones from cow-sized taxa were found. They represented meat cuts and body portions similar to those recovered from Refuse Pit 719: cranial, neck, and at least a few pieces from most of the postcranial skeleton, other than the lower legs, feet, and tail. More sheep bones, and bones from more regions, were found in this feature than in Refuse Pit 719. Cranial and postcranial fragments were recovered. No foot bones were found, but other regions were represented. On the other hand, Refuse Pit 719 contained domestic refuse that lacked temporally diagnostic attributes and therefore could not be assigned to a particular household occupying this block and lot. The faunal collection from this feature was of particular interest and contained mostly cow bone and bone from other large animals. Included were bones of pronghorn, antelope, and rabbit or hare (see Table 16). The refuse deposits on Lot 10 of Block 252 (Features 17549, 22398, and 22399) were largely unstratified. Data retrieved from temporally diagnostic artifacts suggest that the deposits were created during the Brown family tenure; however, a few diagnostic artifacts from these features had long production dates that extended into the rental period (1916–1937). The array of domestic refuse in the deposits included tablewares and food containers, including equipment for home canning and commercially produced foods. In a pattern similar to other features on the Brown family’s property, alcoholic-beverage containers dated from the latter years of their tenure. Clothing and clothing fasteners from these features were utilitarian and undecorated and could not be assigned to a particular demographic. Personal artifacts from the refuse deposits represented mostly beauty and cosmetic products, but health and hygiene items were also present. Lotion containers were common in the deposits. A menthol inhaler and a blood-pressure gauge hint at maladies that Brown family members treated at home. Containers for unidentified salves or creams were numerous, and other home health care was represented by the presence of an oral thermometer. Standard grooming items included combs and razor blades. An eyeglass lens and lapel pin or brooch were recovered. 149 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Toys from these features were largely nondiagnostic with regard to production date, as were smoking-tin and ‑pipe fragments and construction materials. Only two pieces of ammunition were recovered, and these had long production dates spanning the residential period. The lot would have received electricity very soon after the Browns built their residence; so, the presence of electrical artifacts was not surprising. Makers’ marks indicate that ceramic vessels on this lot could have been made in Austria and the United Kingdom between 1862 and 1963, although the features were created during occupations between 1889 and 1940. A token dated May 15, 1923, can be attributed to a post-1923 occupant of the lot (Mr. or Mrs. Norris, who lived there during the 1920s; a tubercular patient of Mrs. Norris’ 1926 sanitarium; Mrs. Garbo; or one of her boarders between 1930 and 1937). The token bore part of the word “Kansas” and the name “Mildred.” The Stewards’ daughter was named Mildred, but she had no ties to the project area after 1922, when the property transferred from her mother to Clyne Development. Because of their context in the refuse deposits, automobile parts from the features (dating from 1904 or later) are attributed to the latter residential period rather than the commercial automobile repair on the lot beginning in 1939. Sanborn maps indicate that the Browns had erected an automobile garage on Lot 9b by 1914. Some inferences regarding meat consumption of lot residents can be made on the basis of the faunal collection. No pig bones were recovered, but a range of other taxa were found, including fish, leporid, and several bird taxa. The majority of bones from the Lot 10 features were assigned to cow-sized mammals or cows. The beef cuts (including both cattle and cow-sized bone) from Lot 10 were dominated by axial cuts. Most of the bones from cow-sized taxa were rib midsections, but a few vertebrae were also present. Other meat cuts included a portion that could be either the sirloin or the rump, a shoulder, and a few cross-cut limbs. A few lower-leg and foot bones were also recovered. The bone from sheep-sized mammals followed a somewhat similar pattern, with rib midsections making up the greatest proportion, along with a few other axial cuts. A very few other bones were recovered and represented cuts from the pelvis, shoulder, neck, and foot. Plants on Block 252, Lot 10, provide a glimpse into species used during the historical period. Both Old World domesticates and New World staples were part of the household diet. Local plants, both naturally occurring weeds and useful fuel sources, were also employed in everyday life. These remains entered the archaeological record through refuse pits that also included naturally occurring plant fragments. In conclusion, archaeological features on Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10, represented both the residential period and later commercial activities. The basement and the cobble and adobe foundation of John and Dolores Brown’s 1892 house were identified, along with an associated privy pit, landscape pits, corral postholes, and contemporary curb posts at the edge of Stone Avenue. Evidence from these features, in conjunction with archival photographs and documentation, provided a rather complete image of the Browns’ property. The Brown residence shared the use of a cesspit situated on the lot to the north (Lot 9a), behind the home of their daughter and her family; therefore, some of the Browns’ refuse was likely deposited there (see Chapter 8). That any remnants of the residence survived intact is surprising, because the house was demolished and replaced with a commercial building in 1939. The privy, cesspit, and all of the refuse features on this block and these lots can be linked to the Brown family’s period of occupation. Only a few temporally diagnostic artifacts had production dates that spanned into the rental period, and it cannot be determined with certainty whether some of the refuse deposits were used by the Browns or later renters. No archaeological evidence can be directly related to the tubercular sanitarium or the later boardinghouse. Archival data for this block and these lots do, however, reveal information regarding the rental period, when 270 N. Stone Avenue housed at least seven tenant households. These tenants represented many of the influences on the growth and development of Tucson in the early-twentieth century (see Appendix D). Some, like John B. Breathitt, were prominent members of Arizona’s business and political community (see Biographies). Others, like Tucson Golf and Country Club golf professional John L. Adams, illustrated the changing face of Tucson toward a vacation spot and resort community. The old cattle and mining town was becoming increasingly dominated and reshaped by recreation and tourism (see Volume 1, Chapter 12). Still other residents continued to represent the older economic forces in Tucson, such as Hugh Norris, who worked for the Southern Pacific Railroad while living in the rental during the early 1920s. Norris’ wife, Mary, opened a tuberculosis sanitarium on the property in 1926, following the death of her husband. The facility encompassed 270 and 250 N. Stone Avenue, as well as a property across the street from the project area. It only operated for 1 year, but the health industry was another major influence on the growth of Tucson’s population (see Volume 1, Chapter 12). In 1930, 270 N. Stone Avenue was operated as a boarding house by Mrs. Ola Garbo. Over the next 5 years, two occupants alternated at that ad150 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) dress, indicating that the house was being used, if not as a boardinghouse, then as a multifamily residence. Finally, around 1937, the house that John Brown built was demolished. Few artifacts were recovered that could be assigned to the commercial period on the block/lot; however, a number of archaeological features dated from that time period. Remains of Bowyer Motors’ automobile hoists were identified in Lot 10. Postholes near the southwest corner of Lot 5 represented a billboard that would have been visible when traveling north on Stone Avenue. 151 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 41. The John and Dolores Brown residence, 270 N. Stone Avenue (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 62776). 152 Figure 42. John N. Brown (1895) and Dolores Ybarra Brown (1897) of 270 N. Stone (photographs courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession Nos. 23833 and 23836). Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) 153 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 43. Fred Steward (far left), his uncle Henry (center), and an unidentified man (far right) (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 22152). Figure 44. Fred (left) and daughter, Mildred (right) Steward (photographs courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession Nos. 22152 and 11019). 154 Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) Figure 45. Animal Burial 22393, Block 252, Lot 10. Figure 46. Hydraulic Hoist 4578 associated with Building N. Figure 47. E. R. Durkee & Co. salad dressing bottle from Block 252, Lot 10, Feature 22399 (Inventory No. 080007084). 155 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 48. Commemorative metal token from Block 252, Lot 10, Feature 22399 (Inventory No. 080006182). Table 13. Identified Ceramic Makers’ Marks in Privy Pit 10095, Block 252, Lot 5 Country of Origin Stratum (Level) Date Reference France 1 1904–1918 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Homer Laughlin “White Granite” United States 2 1877–ca. 1900 Gates and Ormerod 1982:132 Knowles, Taylor, Knowles Company United States 3 1890–1907 Gates and Ormerod 1982:119 France 3 1888–1896 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Homer Laughlin “Golden Gate” United States 5 ca. 1896 Page et al. 2003:31 George Bassett, Limoges United States 1, 2 1890s–1963 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Imperial Crown China Austria 1, 2 1888–1914 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Zeh, Scherzer and Company “Orleans” Bavaria 1–4 1899–1909 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Burgess and Leigh United Kingdom 3, 4 1906–1912 Godden 1964:117 Johnson Brothers, LTD United Kingdom 4, 5 after 1900 Godden 1964:355 Manufacturer Victorian Porcelain, Limoges Haviland and Company, Limoges 156 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 8 4 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 1, 3 2, 3 2, 3 2, 4 2–4 5, 6 Bromo-Seltzer Obear-Nestor Glass Company Pitcher’s Castoria Wyeth and Company Chamberlain’s Cough Remedy Whitall Tatum and Company Hale’s Honey Horehound Pepto-Mangan Illinois Glass Company Arcadian Pharmacy Parke Davis and Company Western Bottle Manufacturing Company Veronica’s Mineral Water Resinol Chemical Company Peptonoids Mentholatum California Fig Syrup Eno’s Fruit Salt Manufacturer/Product Key: MVC = minimum vessel count. 2 MVC 1 Level Baltimore, Maryland East St. Louis, Illinois United States Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Des Moines, Iowa Millville, New Jersey New York, New York New York, New York Alton, Illinois Tucson, Arizona Detroit, Michigan Chicago, Illinois Santa Barbara, California Baltimore, Maryland Yonkers, New York Wichita, Kansas San Francisco, California York, United Kingdom Origin gastrointestinal topical ointment, respiratory aide gastrointestinal gastrointestinal, “buckshot” medicine Product Use 1899–present 1915–1980 1863–1923 1899–1931 1850–1930 1857–1935 1865–1948 1891–1985 1915–1929 1897–1907 1875–present ca. 1901–1930s after 1893 gastrointestinal container, unknown contents gastrointestinal container, unknown contents respiratory container, unknown contents throat medicine gastrointestinal container, unknown contents container, unknown contents container, unknown contents container, unknown contents healthful beverage ca. 1897–1983+ topical medicine for inflammation 1881–1948 1889–1906 1880s–1920 1900–1920 Dates of Production Table 14. Medicine-Bottle Manufacturer Summary for Privy Pit 10095, Block 252, Lot 5 Fike 2006:111 Whitten 2009 Fike 2006:177 Fike 2006:121, 187 Fike 2006:206 Toulouse 1971:544 Fike 2006:165 Fike 2006:176 Toulouse 1971:264 Tucson City Directory 1917 Toulouse 1971:417 Whitten 2009 Fike 2006:245 Fike 2006:75, 83 Fike 2006:45 Fike 2006:83 Fike 2006:225 Fike 2006:161 Reference Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) 157 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 15. Shotgun Shells Identified in Privy Pit 10095, Block 252, Lot 5 Gauge Model Manufacturer Date Reference 12 “Leader” Winchester Repeating Arms 1901–1920 Goodman 1998:n.p. 12 “Repeater” Winchester Repeating Arms 1896–1937 Goodman 1998:n.p. 12 “Nitro Club” Union Metallic Cartridge 1892–1912 Goodman 1998:n.p. 12 “Monarch” Union Metallic Cartridge 1867–1912 Goodman 1998:n.p. 12 “Arrow” Union Metallic Cartridge 1867–1912 Goodman 1998:n.p. 12 “Target” Peters Cartridge Company 1887–1934 Goodman 1998:n.p. 16 “Magic” Union Metallic Cartridge 1867–1912 Goodman 1998:n.p. 158 Level 1 5 — — 1 39 — 21 — 1 — 10 — 6 1 — — — Rock dove Mourning dove Turkey-sized bird Chicken-sized bird Quail- or dove-sized bird Robin-sized bird Bird, size indeterminate Squirrel-sized mammal Rabbit or hare Cottontail Black-tailed jack rabbit Rabbit-sized mammal Carnivore Domestic cat Dog- or bobcat-sized mammal Pig 18 Domestic chicken Zenaida doves 3 Gallinaceous birds 6 3 Dabbling ducks and teals Gambel's quail — Bean geese 4 — Bony fish Wild or domestic turkey 1 NISP Rockfish Common Name 0.22 1.32 2.19 0.22 4.61 8.55 0.22 1.10 1.32 0.88 3.95 0.66 0.66 0.22 % — 2 1 — — 1 12 — — — 7 — 51 — 1 — 3 17 1 20 1 5 2 2 1 NISP 0.40 1.20 6.80 0.40 8.00 0.40 2.00 0.80 0.80 0.40 % 0.80 0.40 0.40 4.80 2.80 20.40 Level 2 2 — — — — — — 1 1 5 — 1 8 4 4 1 — 1 1 11 — 2 — — — NISP 2.78 % 2.78 1.39 1.39 6.94 1.39 11.11 5.56 5.56 1.39 1.39 1.39 15.28 Level 3 — — — — — — — — — 5 — 7 25 — — — 2 — 1 15 — — — — — NISP % 7.00 10.00 36.00 3.00 1.00 21.00 Level 4 — — — — — — — — — — — 1 6 — — — — — — 9 — — — — — NISP % 2.50 15.00 22.50 Level 5 Table 16. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 10095, Block 252, Lot 5 — — — — — — — — — — — — 2 — — — — — — 1 — — — — — % 2 2 1 1 6 1 22 1 2 10 28 9 131 5 5 1 10 24 7 74 4 10 2 2 2 0.56 0.56 0.11 1.12 2.69 0.78 8.29 0.45 1.12 0.22 0.22 0.22 % 0.22 0.22 0.11 0.11 0.67 0.11 2.46 0.11 0.22 1.12 3.14 1.01 14.67 Total NISP continued on next page 40.00 20.00 Level 6 NISP Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) 159 160 — 77 30 228 456 Sheep/goat Cow-sized mammal Sheep-/goat-sized mammal Mammal, size indeterminate Total 0.44 50.00 6.58 100.00 Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. — 2 Sheep Eggshell — % 16.89 Level 1 NISP Cow Common Name — 250 — 34 74 10 — 5 4.00 2.00 % 100.00 13.60 29.60 Level 2 NISP 20 72 1 12 17 — — — % 100.00 1.39 16.67 23.61 Level 3 NISP — 70 — 6 7 — — 2 3.00 % 100.00 9.00 10.00 Level 4 NISP — 40 — 1 23 — — — % 100.00 2.50 57.50 Level 5 NISP — 5 — — 1 1 — — % 100.00 20.00 20.00 Level 6 NISP — 893 229 83 199 11 2 7 1.23 0.22 0.78 % 100.00 25.64 9.29 22.28 Total NISP Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) Table 17. Faunal Remains from Refuse Pit 719, Block 252, Lot 5 Feature 719 Total Common Name NISP % 16 4 Rabbit-sized mammal 6 2 Rabbit or hare 2 1 Cottontail rabbit 1 <1 Dog- or bobcat-sized mammal 1 <1 Carnivore 2 1 Dog or coyote 5 1 279 69 35 9 Even-toed, hoofed mammal 2 1 Pronghorn antelope 4 1 Cow 5 1 Sheep/goat 1 <1 Large-sized mammal 1 <1 46 11 Large bird Elk-, cow-, or horse-sized mammal Deer-sized mammal Mammal, size indeterminate Total 406 Note: Does not include Feature 10095. Percentages are rounded to the nearest whole number. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 161 162 No. of Vessels 3 1 6 4 2 1 2 4 3 1 2 Stratum II and III III III III III III III III III III III Standard Glass Company Sharpe and Dohme Owens Bottle Company Obear-Nestor Glass Company Neurosine/Phenique Chemical Company “Lyric”/Illinois Glass Company Long Beach Glass Company Listerine/Lambert Pharmaceutical Company Illinois Glass Company Angier’s Petroleum Emulsion Wyeth and Company Manufacturer/Product Marion, Indiana Baltimore, Maryland United States East St. Louis, Illinois St. Louis, Missouri Alton, Illinois Long Beach, California East St. Louis, Illinois Alton, Illinois Boston, Massachusetts Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Origin Product Uses gastrointestinal oral antiseptic rinse neurological treatment Toulouse 1971:87 Fike 2006:180 1860–1953 container, unknown contents 1920–1930 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:383 Whitten 2009 Fike 2006:47 Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:118; Toulouse 1971:264 Toulouse 1971:318 Fike 2006:67 Toulouse 1971 Fike 2006:152 Fike 2006:121, 187 Reference 1911–1929 container, unknown contents 1915–1980 container, unknown contents 1902–1930 1928–1929 container, unknown contents 1920–1933 container, unknown contents 1894–1915 1915–1929 container, unknown contents 1889–1960 1899–1931 container, unknown contents Dates of Production Table 18. Medicine-Bottle Manufacturer Summary for Refuse Pit 22399, Block 252, Lot 10 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Chapter 9 • Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 and 9, South Halves Only) Table 19. Vertebrate-Faunal Remains from Block 252, Lot 10 Feature 17549 Common Name Feature 22393 Feature 22432 Lot 10 Total NISP % NISP NISP NISP % Reptile 2 1 — — 2 1.22 Domestic chicken 3 2 1 — 4 1.83 Mourning dove 1 1 — — 1 0.61 Rock dove 1 1 — — 1 0.61 Medium-sized bird 2 1 — — 2 1.22 1 — 1 0.61 1 — — 1 0.61 3 — 3 1.83 3 — — 5 3.05 — 1 1 0.61 Squirrel-sized mammal — Rabbit or hare 1 Domestic cat — Deer-sized mammal 5 Cow — Very-large-sized mammal 19 12 7 — 26 15.85 Extra-large-sized mammal 61 40 — 1 62 37.20 Mammal, size indeterminate 56 37 — — 56 34.15 2 1 — — 2 1.22 153 100 12 2 167 — — — Unidentifiable Total Eggshell 11 Note: Does not include Features 22399 and 22399. Key NISP = number of identified specimens. Table 20. Faunal Remains from Refuse Deposit 22398, Block 252, Lot 10 Stratum I Common Name NISP Dabbling ducks and teals Domestic chicken Stratum II % — 2 18 NISP Total % NISP % 3 1 3 1 9 4 11 5 Wild or domestic turkey — 2 1 2 1 Gallinaceous birds — 2 1 2 1 Chicken-sized bird 2 7 3 9 4 2 5 2 18 Rabbit or hare — 5 Rabbit-sized mammal — 1 Cow — 8 4 8 3 Sheep/goat — 3 1 3 1 57 25 62 26 11 5 11 5 115 51 117 50 2 1 2 1 225 100 236 100 Cow-sized mammal Sheep-/goat-sized mammal Mammal, size indeterminate 5 — 2 Vertebrate — Total 11 Eggshell 45 — 18 100 20 1 — Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 163 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 21. Faunal Remains from Refuse Pit 22399, Block 252, Lot 10 Common Name Stratum I Stratum II Stratum III Total NISP NISP NISP % NISP % California halibut — — 1 2 1 1 Domestic chicken — — 7 15 7 9 Chicken-sized bird 1 2 13 28 16 21 Squirrel-sized mammal — — 1 2 1 1 Cow — 2 7 — 2 3 Cow-sized mammal — 21 75 2 4 23 31 Sheep/goat-sized mammal — 3 11 15 33 18 24 Mammal, size indeterminate — — 3 7 3 4 Vertebrate, indeterminate — — 4 9 4 5 Total 1 28 46 100 75 100 — — Eggshell Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 164 % 7 100 46 — C hapter  1 0 Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 250 N. Stone Avenue Lots 6 and 7 of Block 252 were first purchased by L. Young during the city auction of 1889. However, Young quickly sold the property to a pair of newlyweds. Agnes J. Tevis had married Manley (or Mansley) S. Snyder in March 1889 (Negley and Lindley 1994), and 6 months later, the couple purchased Lots 6 and 7. Early in 1890, the Snyders took out a loan with the Tucson Building and Loan Association. This was most likely intended to fund construction of the 1,248-square-foot house that would soon stand on the couple’s new property. Indeed, in early February of 1890, the Arizona Daily Citizen announced that “Collector Snyder” would shortly begin building a “handsome brick residence” on one of the old cemetery lots (ADC, 6 February 1890:4). The structure can be seen in Figure 10. In March of 1893, after having lived in their new residence for less than 3 years, the Snyders sold the property to James Finley (see Biographies). Whether or not the house was occupied between that sale and 1896 remains unknown, but James and his wife Ellen never lived at 250 N. Stone Avenue. Instead, they operated it as a rental property, beginning in 1896, when they rented the house to J. B. Corbett, a railroad engineer. He lived at the address until 1902, when Annie F. Paul, a daughter of the Finleys, moved in with her husband Robert following the deaths of her parents. Her husband died the same year (Territory of Arizona 1902b), and she only lived at the address between 1902 and 1903, but Annie owned the property and rented it out until 1926. Around 1910, William and Sadie Hendry were known to be living at 250 N. Stone Avenue with their three children. William, born in Iowa, was chief engineer at Tucson Ice and Cold Storage, which was located just north of the project area; Sadie appears not to have worked outside the home. They had a baby boy in 1906 while living on Grossetta Avenue (Hendry 1906). No name was entered on the existing birth certificate. Hendry was living at 250 N. Stone Avenue in 1911 when his 4-year-old son, Kenneth Seaton Hendry, died from burning (ATBH BVS 1911). With the family lived three boarders. Olive Haugen, a 23-year-old woman of Norwegian descent, worked in town as a secretary while supporting her widowed mother, Nina, who lived with her. The other boarder, Adia Hynes, was 20 years old and worked as a bookkeeper. Between 1917 and 1925, at least four different households occupied 250 N. Stone Avenue, including among them, German-born Ben Goldsmith, a president of the Broadway Theatre Company who was later killed when a boy ran into him on a bicycle (ASBH BVS 1935a), and a dry-goods merchant (see Appendix D). Little else is known of Annie Paul’s later renters, and shortly after 1926, she sold the property for commercial development. Most of the material evidence of the house at 250 N. Stone Avenue was removed by later construction. Only two small sections of foundation survived, probably the remains of the front porch (see Feature Descriptions: Building Q). However, residential activities were represented by a number of associated features. The most informative of these were a privy (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Privy Pit 16500) and three cesspits (Cesspits 7893, 7897, and 7958). The privy, located in the northeast corner of the backyard, was of particular interest. Aside from the usual material culture recovered from privy contexts, Privy Pit 16500 incorporated one of the few subterranean privy linings ever reported in the Tucson Basin (see Table 2). It was also associated with one of the few outbuildings visible in Figure 10, a photograph of the project area dating to the early 1890s. This outbuilding remained extant until at least 1914 (Sanborn 1901–1914). However, by 1919, the structure had been enlarged and converted into an automobile garage (Sanborn 1919), indicating that the privy was no longer in use. This pattern, the enlargement and reuse of outbuildings, occurred on many of the properties 165 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest along Stone Avenue between 1914 and 1919 and likely accompanied the installation of city sewers and the increasing use of automobiles (see Volume 1, Chapter 12). Cesspits 7893, 7897, and 7958 were located along the north side of the house and were also somewhat unique in that a sewer pipe ran between two of them (Cesspits 7897 and 7958). It is unclear if this represented a primitive septic tank, a later addition to allow for overflow, or if the arrangement served some other purpose that remains unidentified. In addition to the sewerage features, the residential period was represented by two large refuse pits (Features 7841 and 7848; see Chapter 11). These were both located either in the very rear of the lot, along the eastern property line, or just across the property line, in the adjacent empty lot (Figure 49). There were two pits whose temporal affiliation was unclear (Pits 13550 and 22731). Pit 22731 was apparently located underneath the footprint of both the residential structure at 250 N. Stone Avenue and the later auto dealership. However, most of the remaining pits were most likely associated with the residential period, and most, if not all, were probably tree pits. Two of these features (Landscaping Features 7921 and 7930) were located in the front yard of the residence. The remaining four were clustered around the cesspits, on the northern side of the house. Three of these four (Landscaping Features 7890–7892) were planted in a straight line, paralleling the northern property line. They would have screened the view of John Brown’s house to the north. A fourth tree pit (Landscaping Feature 7949) was located between the cesspits and the house. One pit was probably related to the residential period of these lots; however, its function is not clear. Feature 7908 was a small pit that was discovered in the backyard, along the northern property line. It was filled with cobbles. There may also have been up to four trenches associated with this residence. These included two sewer lines (Trenches 656 and 13598), a gas line (Trench 13638), and an unknown trench that may have held a water pipe (Trench 13582). However, lacking substantial evidence for the residential structure, it is hard to say whether they truly served the residence or whether they were installed during the later commercial period. Commercial History: 240 N. Stone Avenue and 250–252 N. Stone Avenue The commercial period for Lots 6 and 7 began around 1926, when Annie F. Paul sold the property to a group headed by Meade Clyne, a surgeon and noted developer of early Tucson (see Biographies). This group came to include John W. Murphey, another preeminent developer of Tucson in the 1900s (see Biographies). Initially, Clyne et al. kept the residential structure intact. They rented it first to Mrs. H. A. Norris, who incorporated it into a tubercular sanatorium that included 270 N. Stone Avenue. Later, it served as the offices for the used-car division of Motor Mart. Around 1929, Meade Clyne’s group razed the residential building and constructed two contiguous structures (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building J), each covering one of the two lots. Around the same time, the group entered into an agreement to lease the northern building (250 N. Stone Avenue) to the Old Pueblo Bowling and Billiard Parlor (see Figure 20). The southern building (240 N. Stone Avenue) was soon leased to the Bowyer Motor Company. These two businesses remained at their respective addresses until the 1950s. By the mid-1950s, the two buildings had become one functional unit at 240 N. Stone Avenue, their combined structure housing the first of the Sam Levitz furniture stores (see Commercial Enterprises). Later, during the early to mid-1960s, the building was used as a branch of the First National Bank of Arizona. In the late 1960s, the Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company moved one of their downtown branches into the building. It is interesting to note that the new branch location was just south of the old home of founder and former bank president, Fred Steward (see Chapters 8 and 9). In the 1970s, the building was used as the offices of AMEX Copper mines. It also served as the law offices of Dennis DeConcini, who was elected three times to serve Arizona in the U.S. Senate, and his partners McDonald, Brammer, and Yetwin. They were joined by the real-estate business of David DeConcini. Subsequently, the building served several more commercial tenants (see Appendix E) before finally becoming the temporary field office and laboratory for Statistical Research archaeologists during this project. Ultimately, in early 2007, the structure was razed to facilitate identification and excavation of the graves beneath its concrete slabs. 166 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Biographies Finley James Finley owned the residential property at 250 N. Stone Avenue between 1893 and 1899. He was born in Pennsylvania in 1844 and, after serving in a Pennsylvania cavalry regiment during the Civil War, moved west to work in the mining industry in the late 1860s (ADC, 17 November 1899). He shifted between California and Arizona until he settled in Arizona in the early 1880s. There he operated mines in the Harshaw District, south of Tucson, as well as one in Mohave County, near Kingman. In the early 1890s, he tried his hand at cattle ranching, taking control of La Losa ranch near Nogales, Arizona (ADC, 17 November 1899). He retired to Tucson in 1895, where he had previously bought property. There he lived at 47 E. Alameda Street, across the street from the project area (see Chapter 16). In social circles, James Finley was a member of the Pioneer Historical Society, the Tucson Rod and Gun Club, and the Grand Army of the Republic—a fraternity of Union Civil War veterans in which he held several high offices (ADC, 17 November 1899). He also served as a member of the territorial legislature and a supervisor of Pima County. James Finley died on November 16, 1899, after a prolonged attack of “liver trouble” (ADC, 17 November 1899). Finley’s funeral was reportedly one of the most largely attended in Tucson, including 68 carriages and many more on foot and horseback (ADC, 20 November 1899). Finley had a wife named Ellen; little is known about her other than that she had been an invalid for some time prior to Finley’s death. No evidence for their marriage exists in Arizona’s territorial records (Negley and Lindley 1994). Presumably, then, they were married out of state, and she came with James either from Pennsylvania or California. The disposition of her estate is reported in the O’Quinn Title and Abstract Records. She died only a few days after her husband, attended by the same doctor who took her to Los Angeles after Finley’s death for special treatment (ADC, 27 November 1899). The couple had four children: William, Charles, James, and Annie. Annie married Robert J. Paul, a cattle rancher, in 1893 (Negley and Lindley 1994; Territory of Arizona 1902b), and she eventually inherited her father’s property at 250 N. Stone Avenue. She lived there with her husband in 1902. Robert died in August 1902 after a month-long hospital stay, and Annie stayed at the residence in 1903. She did not receive full ownership of the property until 1903, when her brothers deeded their interests to her. She moved from the project area the following year but continued to own the property until 1921, when it was sold to a developer. Corbett Joseph B. Corbett lived on the project area at 250 N. Stone Avenue between at least 1897 and 1901. He may have been related in some way to J. Knox Corbett, owner of the J. Knox Corbett Lumber Company and onetime mayor of Tucson, or the Tucson sports figure Hiram Corbett, but neither of these possible relationships was confirmed by available archival information. J. B. Corbett was born in San Francisco in 1870 and, as a young man, went to work as a machinist in Oakland (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). In the late 1880s, he took a job with the Southern Pacific Railroad as a fireman on the rail line between those two cities. Within a few years, he was promoted to engineer. Corbett came to Arizona in 1892 and began running trains between Tucson and Yuma. This may have been when he began living in the project area, but no city directories are available for Tucson in the early 1890s. During his time as a railroad employee, Corbett was active in the local division of his union, the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, and in 1900, he was elected on a Republican ticket to serve as district representative in the twenty-first General Assembly of Arizona (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). During his tenure, he was a member of several committees, including Corporations, Education, and Ways and Means. Fraternally, Corbett was associated with the Knights Templar of Arizona, the Order of the Eastern Star, and had been an active member of the Free and Accepted Masons in both Oakland and Tucson. Little is known about Joseph Corbett after he left the project area, except that he moved to an address on North Church Avenue. No evidence for a spouse or children during or before his stay in Tucson has been found. 167 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Clyne Meade Clyne was one of the major land developers of Tucson in the first half of the twentieth century (Murphey 1974). Together with John Murphey, Clyne was responsible for the commercial development of a large portion of the project area that fronts Stone Avenue. In 1922, Clyne purchased Lot 5 and half of Lot 4 of Block 252 from Amelia Steward (see Chapter 9), adding Lots 6 and 7 in 1926. Around 1929, after Murphey bought partial interest in Lot 6, Clyne oversaw the construction of new structures on Lots 6 and 7 and the movement of business interests into the area. Clyne was born in Illinois in 1882 and received a medical Ph.D. at Northwestern University in 1907 (AHS n.d. e; TC, 15 April 1967). He came to Tucson in 1909, reportedly for his health, and set up practice as an obstetrician and a surgeon (ADS, 16 April 1967). During his professional career, he was president of both the Arizona State Medical Association and the Pima County Medical Association. He also served as chairman on the board of directors for the American Red Cross and at one point was named county physician (AHS n.d. l). Finally, he was credited as being co-founder of the Tucson Clinic (ADS, 16 April 1967). In March of 1910, 4 months after his arrival in Tucson, Meade Clyne married Alice Budlong, a native of Chicago, with whom he had three sons: John in 1913; Roger in 1914; and Robert in 1918, although the oldest died of typhoid fever at the age of 12 (ASBH BVS 1925). Meade was the attending physician at the delivery of the latter two babies (ATBH BVS 1913; ASBH BVS 1914e; 1918b; AHS n.d. e; TC, 15 April 1967; McClintock 1916d). Socially, he was reputed to have organized the first Rotary Club in Tucson and to have been its first president. He was also elected president of Tucson’s Sunshine Climate Club several times (AHS 1933a; ADS, 15 May 1934; TC, 15 April 1967), and served on the board of directors for the Tucson Chamber of Commerce. He was chairman of the 1929 Tucson Charter Commission and was a member of several social clubs in Tucson, including the Old Pueblo Club, the Arizona Pioneer’s Historical Society, the Tucson Country Club, and the local Masonic Lodge (ADS, 16 April 1967; AHS n.d. e). He died in 1967 at the age of 84 (ADS, 16 April 1967). Murphey John W. Murphey was also one of the major land developers of Tucson in the first half of the twentieth century and was a partner with Meade Clyne in the development of the project area. He was born in Tucson in 1898, son of Walter E. Murphey, yet another prominent local land developer (AHS n.d. m). Despite having earned his B.S. in Geology from the University of Arizona in 1920 (TC, 27 December 1977), he too became a contractor and developer. In 1929, he bought half-interest in Lot 6 of Block 252 in the project area. He became partners with Clyne in the construction of the buildings which housed the Old Pueblo Bowling Alley and the Bowyer Motor Company. In 1929, Murphey started the John W. Murphey Building Company, which made roughly half a million dollars in its first year (Murphey n.d.). Over the course of his career, he was responsible for much of the construction and development that took place within Tucson. He built the St. Philip’s in the Hills Church, the Tucson Country Club Estates, and the Catalina Foothills Estates (ADS, 28 December 1977; TC, 27 December 1977). In 1937, he also built Broadway Village, the first shopping center in Arizona (AHS n.d. f). Helen Street, near the University of Arizona, is reportedly named after his wife (AS, 24 August 1997). Socially, he was a member of several organizations, including the native Tucsonan Old Pueblo Club, the Arizona Historical Society, the Skyline Country Club, the American Legion, and the Chamber of Commerce. John Murphey was a veteran soldier of World War I, and in World War II, he served as a military contractor. He worked primarily in the Southwest, constructing airbases, including one in Roswell, New Mexico, as well as other facilities (AS, 24 August 1997). After the war, Murphey returned to his Tucson firm, where he was active until his death in 1977, at the age of 79. 168 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Commercial Enterprises Old Pueblo Bowling Alley The Old Pueblo Bowling Alley was the first occupant of the commercial building constructed at 250 N. Stone Avenue (see Figure 20). It was established in 1929, when it was managed by Had Summerville, who lived in the project area at 38 Miltenberg Street, and it stayed at that location until 1954. There were slight variations in the name of the business, as recorded in the Tucson city directories (see Appendix E). However, it remained essentially the same, except briefly between 1935 and 1936, when the name changed to Tucson Recreation. The name changed back to Old Pueblo Bowling in 1937. Research did not disclose the significance of this temporary name change, and it may represent a change in ownership, new management, a change in recreational activities provided, or an error in city directories, but it seems likely that the business remained intact throughout this time period. In 1936, the bowling alley apparently rented space to J. H. Alysworth’s liquor store, although the store was only present for 1 year. In the late 1940s, businesses apparently related to the bowling alley (if only in name) started to take up residence in the building. It was also at this time that the building was remodeled and room was made for a restaurant and a store (see Architectural Descriptions). Indeed, the Old Pueblo Café appeared in Tucson city directories alongside the bowling alley between 1948 and 1953. In 1949, the J. O. Armenta barbershop rented space there, changing its name to the Old Pueblo Barber Shop in 1950 before going out of business in 1953. These businesses rented space from the bowling alley during those years just prior to the closure of the facility, a fact possibly indicative of failed attempts to boost business or to share costs as the bowling enterprise began to fail. Bowyer Motor Company The Bowyer Motor Company was one of many automotive companies to occupy the project area during its commercial period. Along with Baum and Adamson, it was also one of the longest lived and most substantial, lasting 20 years and at times occupying most of the property fronting Stone Avenue. In 1929, it became the first occupant of the new commercial building at 240 N. Stone Avenue. By 1931, the residential structure at 220 N. Stone Avenue, directly across Miltenberg Street from 240 N. Stone Avenue, had been demolished and taken over by Bowyer Motors for its used-car division. By 1935, this used-car lot had been replaced by a service station operating under a different name (see Chapter 13). Bowyer Motors eventually opened another car lot at 280 N. Stone Avenue, north of 240 N. Stone Avenue, although this did not happen until 1939 (see Chapters 8 and 9). Meanwhile, the service station at 220 N. Stone Avenue changed names several times until 1946, when the property was taken over by Bowyer Motors again (see Chapter 13). By this time, the automotive company was operating at three locations in the project area. This strong presence only lasted until 1948, when the sales lot and repair shop were sold to Baum and Adamson for its 1949 remodeling and expansion project. The service station also was vacated that year, and in 1950, the original salesroom was replaced by World Wide Motors. Sam Levitz In 1954, Sam Levitz Furniture moved into the building at 240 N. Stone Avenue, replacing World Wide Motors. Levitz had originally come to Tucson as a photographer, and his name is on many historical-period photographs in the Arizona Historical Society, including a collection of archaeological photographs contributed by Byron Cummings (Cummings et al. n.d.). Eventually, however, he took up his father’s line of business and opened his first furniture store, which was located in the project area (Figure 50). It expanded a few years later to absorb the Old Pueblo Bowling Alley building at 250 N. Stone Avenue. In 1957, however, the location was abandoned after a highly successful sale at the newly constructed 18th Street storage facility (Sam Levitz Furniture 2008). The sale had so impressed Mr. Levitz that he decided to begin selling directly to customers from warehouse locations. By 2009, the Sam Levitz brand had expanded far beyond 169 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest its humble beginnings, becoming the leading furniture store in the region, with three locations in the Tucson area (Sam Levitz Furniture 2008). The two buildings in the project area were taken over briefly by Salvage Sales, another furniture company, but went vacant soon after. First National Bank of Arizona The Bank of Arizona was the first chartered banking institution in the Arizona Territory (Hazeltine 1977). It opened in Prescott in 1877, soon expanding to Phoenix, where it became the National Bank of Arizona by 1887. By 1926, it had become the First National Bank of Arizona. Soon after, it began absorbing other banking institutions. In 1937, the First National Bank of Arizona purchased the Yuma branch of the Miners and Merchants Bank of Arizona and acquired both the Phoenix National Bank and the Phoenix Savings Bank and Trust. In the 1950s, the First National Bank of Arizona absorbed the White Mountain Bank, the Miners and Merchant Bank, and the original Bank of Arizona in Prescott. By 1958, the First National Bank of Arizona was one of the six remaining banks left in the state, down from the 88 financial institutions that had existed in 1921 (Hazeltine 1977:10). In 1962, the buildings at 240–250 N. Stone Avenue were combined into a single structure for use as a downtown branch of the First National Bank of Arizona, during which time it was remodeled to include a drive-through facility (O’Mack 2005). The 240 N. Stone Avenue location was abandoned shortly after 1965, when the First National Bank of Arizona erected its new office building at 200 N. Stone Avenue, just south of the project area. It remained at the latter location until 1975, and the building still stands today. Southern Arizona Bank and Trust The Southern Arizona Bank and Trust was founded in 1903 by Fred J. Steward and Nathaniel E. Plumer, two young men who had both come to Arizona for their health (Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company 1953). At the time, Fred was living in the project area at 286 N. Stone Avenue with his wife Amelia Brown Steward (see Chapters 8 and 9). The bank’s first office was a converted hay and feed store with second-story living space (Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company 1953). It was located at 32 N. Stone Avenue, and there it remained for at least the next 50 years. Engaged in general banking as well as real estate and insurance, the bank had nearly $103,000 in deposits by the end of its first year. Open each Saturday from 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 pm, and for two evenings following the arrival of the railroad pay car each month, the Southern Arizona Bank and Trust started out with a staff of only three people: Nat Plumer, the company president; Fred Steward, the cashier; and a bookkeeper named Walter Clement. In 1917, Nat Plumer died and Fred Steward was elected to replace him (Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company 1953). As president, Steward guided the bank through both the Great Depression, during which the Southern Arizona Bank and Trust suffered comparatively small losses and an earlier Arizona-specific economic crisis in the early 1920s. That latter crisis had occurred because of a major drop in copper and cotton prices, and it ultimately caused the failure of 49 other banks in the state. In 1933, the Southern Arizona Bank and Trust became part of the Federal Reserve System and jettisoned its realty-insurance department. Five years later, Steward retired as president of the company. By this time, the Southern Arizona Bank and Trust employed 60 people and held $9.5 million in deposits. Between 1945 and 1951, the bank opened six new branches in Tucson, and by 1952, it employed 250 people and claimed $71 million in deposits (Southern Arizona Bank and Trust Company 1953). In 1953, the bank became the largest and oldest bank to continuously serve Tucson. In 1968, it opened a branch in the building at 240 N. Stone Avenue, which the First National Bank of Arizona had converted earlier that decade. The new branch location, located two lots south of Fred Steward’s old home, lasted only 2 years, closing in 1970. In 1975, the Southern Arizona Bank and Trust merged with First National Bank of Arizona (Hazeltine 1977). 170 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Architectural Descriptions 250 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Structure (Building Q) This one-story, single-family dwelling was Folk Victorian in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7 and 17]; see Figures 10–14) (Sanborn 1901–1922). Built by 1892, it was located at the northwest corner of Miltenberg Street and North Stone Avenue. The building was oriented east-west, with the main entrance facing west onto North Stone Avenue. This rectangular-in-plan residence was constructed of brick with a wood-framed cornice. The moderately pitched, wood-framed hipped roof had cross-gabled dormers and was clad in wood shingles. Two interior chimneys were located on the south side of the building; the easterly one was constructed of tile. Full-facade wood-framed porches with wood-shingled roofs adorned the front and rear of the house. It was gone by 1930. 2501/2 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Garage (No Building Number) This one-story, rectangular-in-plan outbuilding was likely constructed of adobe. It was present by 1892 and was likely constructed around the same time as the residential structure at 250 N. Stone Avenue (see Figures 10 and 14) (Sanborn 1901–1922). It had a wood-framed shed roof clad in wood shingles. The front facade faced west and likely consisted of wooden gates. It was located on top of Privy Pit 16500, indicating that it served as an outhouse. Between 1915 and 1919, however, the roof was reclad with a noncombustible material, and the building became an automobile garage. It, too, had been demolished by 1930. 250–252 N. Stone Avenue, Old Pueblo Bowling and Billiard Parlor (Building J) This one-story commercial building was rectangular in plan view with the front facing North Stone Avenue. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1930–1960) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 33, 40, 68, 69, and 70]; see Figures 15–18 and 20). Built around 1929 as a bowling alley and pool hall (see Figure 20), it had a Spanish Eclectic architectural style. All walls were 8 inches thick, with the north, west, and south constructed of brick, and the east constructed of concrete block. The building had a roof height of 14 feet. All walls had interior buttresses, and upon its completion, the south wall served as a common wall, or party wall, with the building at 240 N. Stone Avenue. The building likely had a poured concrete floor. The low-pitched wood-framed arched-truss roof was supported by pilasters and sheathed in a composite material. Six 4-by-6-foot wired-glass skylights provided natural light into the building. The north and west walls exhibited a 2-foot-high parapet. The front facade featured a short, false torreón (defensive structure) with a hipped roof on the northwest corner, which sat above the roofline by about 2 feet. The building was clad in rough-textured stucco. The roof was sheathed in red Spanish, or Mission, tile. Below the hipped roof was a hooded false window, with decorative tile and spindles. At the same elevation as the false window were two rectangular louvered vents. Four light fixtures and three large window units shaded by an awning were featured below a band molding. The window units exhibited a band of narrow lights above larger multiunit panes. It appears that the center unit provided access to the building. One primary opening was also located on the north facade. Between 1941 and 1947, a 7-foot-high brick wall was constructed immediately behind this building and the adjacent building at 240 N. Stone Avenue. Between 1947 and 1949, the building was remodeled. The bowling alley and pool hall were located in the rear portion of the building. The interior of the front of the building was reconfigured into a store on the north end and a restaurant on the south end. Between 1953 and 1957, the building was vacant and appeared to have been internally connected with its southerly neighbor at 240 N. Stone Avenue (see below). Also, the hipped roof was removed from the torreón. 171 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 240 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company (Building J) This one-story commercial building was rectangular in plan and located on the northeast corner of Miltenberg Street and North Stone Avenue. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1930– 1960) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 68, 70, and 71]; see Figures 15–18, and 20). The building was oriented west to east with the front facade facing North Stone Avenue. Constructed around 1929 of brick with 8-inch-thick walls, the building had a roof height of 14 feet. The south wall had interior buttresses. The north wall, built prior as part of 250 N. Stone Avenue, became a common wall, or party wall, and was buttressed on its north side within the adjacent building. Built as an automobile sales and service department, it had a poured-concrete floor. The low-pitched, wood-framed gabled-truss roof was sheathed in a composite material and was supported by pilasters. Two wired-glass skylights in metal sashes provided natural light in the service department. The south wall had a 2-foot-high parapet, and the west wall had an 18-inch-high parapet with a sculptured design and spires. A wood-framed wall divided the sales in the front of the building with the service department in the rear of the building. The west facade had at least three large service bays. Between 1941 and 1947, a 7-foot-high brick wall was constructed immediately behind this building and the adjacent building at 250 N. Stone Avenue. Between 1953 and 1957, the building was vacant and appears to have been internally connected with its northerly neighbor at 250 N. Stone Avenue. During this time, the service bays on the south facade were filled in. Between 1958 and 1960, the building was used for furniture storage. In 1961, this building and the adjacent building at 250 N. Stone Avenue were remodeled, combining the two brick buildings into one address at 240 N. Stone Avenue. The front facades were drastically altered. All elements of Spanish Colonial Revival architecture were removed. The exterior was reclad in stucco, unifying the buildings. A framed narrow overhang with a parapet, reminiscent of a ‘headband’ was added to the front and southwest corner of the building. It was stuccoed and accented with a thin band of ceramic tile at the bottom. The front windows were removed. The large interior spaces of the more southerly building (240 N. Stone Avenue) were remodeled into office spaces. Large portions of the east and west walls of the more northerly building (250 N. Stone Avenue) were opened up and used as a bank drive-through. Cars entered the facility from the rear (east) side of the building and exited through its west side onto North Stone Avenue. A large vault was constructed in the northwest corner of the southerly building. Between 1976 and 1983, the building was remodeled and received various cosmetic alterations. The drive-through facility was filled in and converted to offices. By 2005, the main entrance to the building was a recessed door on the south end of the west facade. The north end of the west facade had an asymmetrical placement of two windows and one door. Four pairs of windows and a door were located on the south facade. Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building J (240 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company) Building J (see Figure 24) remained standing at the start of this investigation, measuring approximately 150 by 100 feet in size. The building was oriented west to east and consisted of foundations representing three construction episodes, as well as the existing one-story superstructure, prior to its demolition. During excavation, subterranean features were encountered that were associated with the original businesses that occupied the building: Old Pueblo Bowling and Billiard Parlor and Bowyer Motor Company. The main building foundation was divided into two parts (Features 13511 and 13607). The northernmost and earliest poured-concrete foundation (Feature 13511) formed a rectangle 150 feet long and 50 feet wide. On the east end of the area defined by this foundation was a concrete trough (Feature 7911) measuring approximately 44.5 by 5.5 feet, representing the location of a bowling pin return machine. The southern pouredconcrete foundation (Feature 13607) created an identical rectangle to that formed by Foundation 13511, sharing a common wall. The east end of the area defined by this foundation held a concrete grease pit (Feature 13631), probably associated with the automobile dealer that first occupied this part of the building. At the northwest corner of Foundation 13607 was another foundation (Feature 7996), constructed for the support of a bank vault. This feature was added to the structure in 1961, when the entire building was 172 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 remodeled by the First National Bank of Arizona (see above). There were three additional foundation sections within the footprint of Building J that were apparently unrelated to it. The first two (Features 7940 and 13503) might have been related to the house (see Building Q) depicted on Sanborn maps (1901–1922) as occupying the lot prior to Building J. The third foundation section (Feature 13597), a poured-concrete oval near the south wall of Feature 13607, remains unattributed to any known construction on the site. Building J was superimposed on at least 270 graves, as well as numerous postcemetery features. The building foundations intruded on the burials in at least seven graves (Grave Pits 13629, 17825, 17826, 17845, 17867, 20511, and 22352). Three of the graves (Grave Pits 17825, 17826, and 20511) showed evidence of possible grave-robbing in the form of cranium removal. The removals probably occurred during construction of the foundations. The affected postcemetery features included a privy pit (Feature 16500) and three cesspits (Features 7893, 7958, and 7897), as well as a sewer pipe connecting two of the cesspits (Feature 7959). Also affected were tree pits (Landscaping Features 7890, 7891, 7892, 7921, 7930, and 7949) and three pits of undetermined use (Features 7908, 13550, and 22731). Although the upper fill of all features under Building J was disturbed during later construction activities, none of the disturbance was significant. At least 10 pipe trenches were associated with Building J. Most of these (Features 656, 7562, 7731 7761/7889, 13638, 13598, 13633 and 13632) appear to have been sewer trenches, but two others were also encountered; one (Feature 7869) was a natural gas line and the other (Feature 13582) remains unidentified. Building Q (250 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Structure) Building Q incorporated two related features: a concrete foundation (Feature 7940) and a stone and mortar foundation (Feature 13503). The remains of these foundations were exposed during mechanical stripping. One (Feature 13503) was oriented west to east and likely represented an interior wall of the original residential structure for this lot (Sanborn 1901). This foundation segment measured approximately 3.5 feet long and was composed of mortar and blocks made of local basalt. The remaining foundation (Feature 7940) was oriented west-east and was constructed of poured concrete. It measured approximately 8.5 feet long and formed the north wall of the building. Both Feature 13503 and Feature 7940 disturbed grave pits. The fill of the graves was less compact than the surrounding matrix, and the foundations either sunk into or were dug more deeply at these points, which is most likely how these features survived the demolition of Building Q. The concrete foundation (Feature 7940) intruded on Grave Pit 13502, and the stone and mortar foundation (Feature 13505) intruded on Grave Pit 22157. In neither case was the burial disturbed. Cesspit 7893 Feature 7893 was an east-west-oriented subrectangular cesspit encountered during mechanical stripping. It measured 8 by 9.5 feet in plan view and was approximately 10.5 feet deep. The external matrix was compact caliche (Natural Stratum II) but graded into loose sand (Natural Stratum III). It was mechanically excavated in a single level and screened using the power screen, which recovered some faunal bone and disarticulated human remains, but no artifacts. The pit intruded on an infant’s grave (Grave Pit 7950). Cesspit 7893 appeared to be related to two smaller cesspit features in the nearby area. Cesspit 7958 was adjacent to its southeastern corner, and Cesspit 7897 was connected to Cesspit 7958 by a pipe trench (Feature 7959). The exact relationship between the four features is unclear, although a wooden foundation that might represent an outhouse structure was recovered above the fill of Cesspit 7893. Cesspit 7897 Feature 7897 was a circular-shaped cesspit encountered during mechanical stripping. It measured approximately 5 by 5 feet in plan view and was 10.5 feet deep. The external matrix was compact caliche (Natural Stratum II) but graded into loose sand (Natural Stratum III). The fill consisted of a sandy loam stained green and yellow, indicating the presence of human waste. The feature was mechanically excavated in a single level and screened using the power screen, which produced faunal bone and artifacts. The pit appeared to be related to two other cesspit features in the nearby area. It was connected to Cesspit 7958 by a pipe trench 173 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest (Feature 7959) extending from its southwest corner. Cesspit 7958 was, in turn, adjacent to the southeastern corner of a much larger cesspit (Feature 7893). Cesspit 7958 Feature 7958 was a subrectangular cesspit encountered during mechanical stripping. It measured nearly 5 feet on each axis and was roughly 5 feet deep. The external matrix was compact caliche (Natural Stratum II) but graded into loose sand (Natural Stratum III). The feature was mechanically excavated in a single level and screened using the power screen, which produced some faunal bone and disarticulated human remains, but no artifacts. This feature appeared to be related to two other cesspit features in the nearby area. It was located adjacent to the southeast corner of Feature 7893, a much larger cesspit, and connected to Feature 7897 by a pipe trench (Feature 7959) extending from its eastern wall. Pit 22731 Feature 22731 was a circular pit discovered during mechanical stripping, and it measured 24 inches in diameter and 10 inches deep. It was cylindrical in shape and excavated into the surrounding caliche matrix (Natural Stratum II). The pit intruded on the southern end of Grave Pit 13513 and the southeast corner of Grave Pit 13510. The boundary of the feature was not apparent during excavation, and the pit was excavated with the Level 1 grave fill of Grave Pit 13513. The grave fill was moderately compact silty loam; no difference between this fill and the fill of Pit 22731 was noted. There were very few artifacts, and they cannot be assigned with certainty to either feature. Privy Pit 16500 Feature 16500 was a privy pit encountered during mechanical stripping. The top of the feature was round to oval in plan view, oriented north-south, and measured roughly 6 by 5 feet. In profile, the feature belled out in the middle elevations, before finally tapering to a smaller, square shape at the bottom that measured 4 by 4 feet in size (Figure 51). Overall, the feature was 12.5 feet deep. The privy was excavated in three stages, to address safety regulations and additional safety concerns raised by the consistency of the external matrix in the lower stages. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche (Natural Stratum II) in the upper strata and loose gravelly sand (Natural Stratum III) in the middle. Below this, it turned into cemented reddish, gravelly sand that may have represented a terrace not defined during geomorphological investigations. Finally, the feature ended in highly structured, fine orange sand (Natural Stratum V). Initial uncertainty about the horizontal extent of the feature—exacerbated by the involvement of a grave (Grave Pit 10809), which this feature disturbed—led to the excavation of Stage 1 in three sections instead of two. Human remains from the disturbed grave were later recovered at the bottom of the privy. This privy was unique in the project area in that it was fitted with an internal, boxlike wooden framework, roughly square in plan view. The box extended from the bottom of Stage 1, where the surrounding matrix became loose sand, to the bottom of the feature. The framework was constructed of vertical wooden planks forming four adjacent walls inside the privy. These were nailed together at the bottom with four horizontal planks interior to each wall. Possible additional cross-supports were noted in Level 1 of Stage 2, in the northern half of the feature. Stages 2 and 3 were each excavated in four sections, consisting of north and south halves of the feature, subdivided into the fill internal and external to the wooden framework. The fill external to the wooden framework was generally sandy and sterile, although there were areas where staining had leached out from inside the framework. Likewise, artifact concentration was sparse in the external fill and much richer internally. The construction of the wooden framework was probably intended to stabilize the walls of the feature within the loose sand of Natural Stratum III. This interpretation is supported by the fact that the box first appeared where the external matrix began to become unstable. The external shape of the privy was large and irregular at this level and extended significantly beyond the wooden framework, indicating the collapse of feature walls. The previously mentioned belled section of the profile was associated with this collapse. At 174 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 the bottom of the feature, the external shape of the privy returned to a shape and dimension only slightly larger than the square wooden framework, probably because the surrounding matrix was somewhat more stable at that depth and did not collapse. Although several greenish layers (Strata XII and XVII) indicated the presence of human waste near the bottom of Feature 16500 (see Figure 51), the privy was dominated by thick layers of clean fill (Strata I, II, III, V, VII, VIII, XI, XIII, and XV), broken by lenses of dense refuse (Strata IV, VI, X, XIV, XVI, and XVIII). Ash and charcoal appeared throughout the feature, but rarely in discrete lenses, with the exception of Stratum IX. The refuse consisted mostly of kitchen or household waste, such as utensils, oyster shells, and clothing fasteners. It often appeared to have been burned in situ, an observation supported by the fact that the wooden framework was charred throughout the feature. Refuse Pit 7841 For a description of Refuse Pit 7841, see Chapter 11. Refuse Pit 7848 For a description of Refuse Pit 7848, see Chapter 11. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Privy Pit 16500 contained a total of 432 ceramic artifacts, about 15 percent of all ceramics recovered from postcemetery contexts within the project area. Datable sherds were made between 1878 and 1925, but this property was occupied from 1896 to 1929. Semivitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 217; MVC = 95) and hardpaste porcelain sherds (n = 156; MVC = 61) made up about 86 percent of ceramics in this feature, although a small quantity of nonvitreous, vitreous, and coarse earthenware, stoneware, and bone china was also present. Sherds in this feature were from at least 186 vessels, most of which were handled cups (MVC = 43), plates (MVC = 33), saucers (MVC = 20), and bowls (MVC = 17). Sherds from two storage jars were also identified. Ceramic artifact densities varied throughout the numerous stratigraphic units of Privy Pit 16500 because of depositional behavior. Ceramic sherds were recovered from 22 of the 24 stratigraphic units in this feature. Ceramics were not found in Stratum X or XIV, both of which contained small quantities of artifacts. Because of the large number of stratigraphic units in this feature, some of which were small by volume, artifact density alone does not completely explain the clustering of ceramic artifacts. The upper 8 levels of this feature were most likely undifferentiated fill based on a large quantity of construction artifacts and lower density of personal artifacts. Although Levels 1–8 yielded 45 percent of the artifacts and made up 62 percent of the excavated volume of Privy Pit 16500, construction artifacts, specifically nails and wire, were much more plentiful there than in lower strata. About 40 percent of the ceramic sherds were collected from Levels 1–8, but the density of ceramics in these levels was comparatively low (1.96 per cubic foot or 0.06/m3 in Levels 1–8 compared with 4.93 per cubic foot or 0.14/m3 in Strata I–XVI). Furthermore, stratigraphic units below Level 8, specifically Stratum V and Strata VII and VIII, included sediments built up over time through individual dumping episodes. This can be seen in the distribution of ceramic artifacts. Strata V, VII, and VIII had higher-than-average densities of ceramic artifacts (5.91 per cubic foot or 0.17/ m3 in Stratum V and 11.14 per cubic foot or 0.32/m3 for Strata VII and VIII combined). Strata above and below these stratigraphic units had much lower ceramic densities. The lowest stratigraphic units of Privy Pit 16500 (Strata XV and XVI) also had a high density of ceramics (5.97 per cubic foot or 0.17/m3) and contained 19 percent of all artifacts in the feature. This may have been the result of heavier artifacts sinking through the pliant privy matrix. Privy Pit 16500 contained sherds from at least 11 tableware sets (Table 22). Some of these sets were only recovered in a single stratigraphic unit, but several sets were recovered from more than one stratum. 175 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest None of the sets in Table 22 had a manufacturer’s mark, but all were highly decorated, stylish vessels that would have been desirable during the late nineteenth century. The distribution of ceramics sets throughout Privy Pit 16500 indicates that deposition in this feature took place through time and was not a single event. Sets were typically concentrated nearby in one or two strata, especially in the lower strata. In the upper strata that may have been used to fill the privy depression, ceramic fragments were found in more than one stratigraphic unit. Fragments representing one Asian hardpaste porcelain set were found in both lower and upper strata, suggesting fill sediments may have incorporated matrix that contained refuse from across the lot. Manufacturers’ marks were identified on 13 ceramic vessels and these indicated items in Privy Pit 16500 were made in Europe, Japan, and the United States at the close of the nineteenth century (Table 23). Features 7841 and 16500 contained a total of 106 Native American ceramic sherds. Papago Red sherds (n = 86) were the most-prevalent ware type, but Papago Black-on-red (n = 15) and indeterminate Papago sherds (n = 5) were also recovered. Eighty percent of sherds (n = 85) were from unidentified vessel forms and only 19 sherds could be identified as olla fragments. Included in the sample from Privy Pit 16500 was a nearly complete Papago Black-on-red three-spouted jar that may have been a Maricopa vessel (see Appendix N for a photograph and full description). Also included in Privy Pit 16500 was at least one Papago Blackon-red effigy vessel. It may have been a cover for a conical incense burner, based on the heavy sooting of the interior surface (see Appendix N). A total of 72 nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts (MVC = 25) was recovered from Privy Pit 16500. Half of these artifacts (n = 36) were from glass vessels and 47 percent were from metal items. Fragments of a utensil handle made of bone and a broken metate were the only tableware or culinary artifacts in this feature that were not made of glass or metal. Twelve of the 24 stratigraphic units yielded nonceramic tablewares. Stratum VIII contained the most tableware and culinary artifacts (n = 22), but this represented only a metal pie pan, a gray enamelware saucepan, and three colorless tumblers. Glass tableware artifacts (MVC = 14) were primarily tumblers (MVC = 9). Decorated tumblers were mostly press molded (MVC = 5), but an etched vessel was also identified. Pressed-glass decorative motifs in this feature included vertical fluting and starburst designs. The decorative tableware vessels (MVC = 3) included fragments from two colorless, pressed-glass plates with scalloped edges and a colorless serving bowl with a geometric design. Other colorless-glass tableware artifacts included fragments of a small cordial glass and an undecorated glass mug handle. Metal culinary artifacts in Privy Pit 16500 (MVC = 10) included both food preparation and food consumption vessels. This category included two pie pans, two gray enamelware saucepans, a kettle, a serving spoon, a tablespoon, and two miscellaneous utensil handles. The kettle was chrome-plated copper, a technique that has been used for most of the twentieth century but was most common after World War II (Light 2000:10). In addition to these items, the crank and handle of an ice cream machine was recovered from Level 6. This artifact was marked “WHITE/MOUNTAIN/FREEZER”. Similar ice cream freezers made by a different company were advertised in the Sears catalog during the early twentieth century (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1900:806; 1902:576). Privy Pit 16500 held whole vessels and fragments indicating a minimum of 63 glass and metal food/ beverage containers, including 16 bottles, 28 jars, and 18 cans. Twenty-three bottle/jar closures were also represented, mostly in the lower stratigraphic levels. Food/beverage containers and closures were recovered from all 24 stratigraphic layers. Of those glass vessels with identifiable technology, the largest percentage (31 percent) were machine-made. Bottles were primarily observed in the lower stratigraphic layers. Most of the bottle contents were not identified. Evidence of at least 1 olive oil, 5 condiment, 1 milk, and 1 unidentified beverage bottle was recovered. Of note were a “GEO M. CURTIS/PURE/OLIVE OIL” bottle, 2 Curtice Bros. ketchup bottles, and 2 E. R. Durkee salad dressing bottles. Bottle closures included at least 7 crown caps and 1 screw cap stamped “[E.R.] DURKEE & CO./TRADE/MARK/NEW YORK” with the gauntlet symbol dating between the 1860s and 1900 (Toulouse 1971:559). Jars were found primarily in the middle and lower stratigraphic layers. Most jar contents could not be identified; however, at least 19 canning jars and 9 commercially packed food and preserve jars were found. Of note were 3 Bishop & Co. condiment bottles; a sun-colored amethyst jar; a Libby, McNeil & Libby Co. jar embossed on the base “[LIB]BY MCNE[IL]/ CORP[ORATION]”; and a Long’s preserve jar. Canning jars were represented by Kerr, Economy, Mason, San Jose Fruit Packing Co., and Hero brands. Given the number of other colorless jars shards in this feature, additional home-canning jars and commercially canned goods were probably represented. Jar closures included at least 5 lid liners, a zinc screw cap, and a rubber seal. Metal cans were primarily found in the upper stratigraphic levels. It was not possible to determine original contents for most of the cans, but hole-in-cap 176 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 and sanitary cans were both present. One condensed-milk can from Level 5 was identified, and more than 3 canned-heat cans were represented by fragments from Levels 5 and 8 and Stratum VIII. The presence of canned-heat cans could suggest that the residents undertook a cooking/heating activity that did not involve a wood or gas stove; however, other interpretations are possible (see Chapter 16, Cesspit 3040, for further discussion). The privy pit contained a total of 327 alcohol bottles and fragments from 62 vessels, recovered from 12 strata. The distribution of alcohol-bottle shards between strata was substantially unequal. The upper eight stratigraphic units of Privy 16500, Levels 1 through 8, made up 65 percent (91.59 per cubic foot or 2.59/ m3) of the total volume of sediment excavated (141.27 per cubic foot; 4.9/m3) but only contained 9 percent (n = 29) of alcohol-bottle shards. Strata I–XVI were volumetrically smaller (49.68 per cubic foot; 1.41/m3), but yielded 91 percent (n = 298) of the alcohol-related artifacts. These shards were concentrated in Strata XV and XVI, which contained 84 percent (n = 275) of the alcohol-related artifacts at a combined density of 26.49 per cubic foot (0.75/m³). By contrast, the average density of the other strata with alcohol-related glass was 0.61 per cubic foot (0.02/m³). Preferences for certain varieties of alcoholic drink were visible by the frequency of bottle shard types. The 189 wine or champagne bottle shards from at least 30 vessels, which made up 58 percent of all shards in this feature, indicate this was the beverage of choice on this lot. Distilledspirits shards were 31 percent (n = 103; MVC = 11) and were the second most frequent type of alcohol glass. Beer bottle shards from at least 21 vessels were only 11 percent (n = 35) of the total but contained all of the datable artifacts. Unlike wine or champagne and spirits that were concentrated in Strata XV and XVI, beer bottle fragments were recovered in nearly every level of the feature. Dates from manufacturing data indicated that the vessels in the lower half of the feature, below Stratum VIII, were made between 1884 and 1937 and that 5 of the 9 datable vessels could not have been made before 1900. Stratum I contained the remains of a bottle made by the Crown Distilleries (1896–1916). The Crown Distilleries Company was formed in 1896 as a subsidiary of Lilienthal and Company, which was the largest liquor distributor in the American West by the 1890s (Wilson and Wilson 1968:95–98). Crown Distilleries bottles have been produced since 1896, but it is unknown when the company ceased operation. Five datable bottles were collected from Stratum VIII, including items made by Reed and Company (1881–1904), American Bottle Company (1905–1916), and William Franzen and Sons (1900–1929) (Toulouse 1971:536; Whitten 2009). A bottle made by Adolphus Busch (1904–1907) was recovered from Stratum XII. Stratum XV contained a green liquor bottle made by the North British Bottle Manufacturing Company in Glasgow, Scotland (1903–1937), which was known for their scotch whiskey bottles, and a bottle made by the Adolphus Busch Glass Manufacturing Company (1886–1925) (Toulouse 1971:377; Whitten 2009). Fourteen of the 24 stratigraphic layers in Privy Pit 16500 yielded clothing fasteners and fabric. Most of these artifacts were recovered from Stratum VIII. Corset and garter/hosiery hardware made up most of the clothing fasteners, followed by undecorated buttons. Both men’s and women’s clothing was indicated. Recovered from the middle to lowest stratigraphic layers, eyelets and stays made up corset hardware, and small buckles, clasps, and hooks represented garter/hosiery hardware. Buttons, primarily in the middle to lowest stratigraphic layers, were sew-through, cloth-covered shank, and wire-loop shank types. Sizes suggested use on lingerie, shirts, dresses, and vests. Hooks and eyes, snaps, a rivet, and medium-sized safety pins were present in the middle to lowest stratigraphic layers. Finely woven, black cotton corset fragments were also found. Privy Pit 16500 contained over 200 footwear fragments representing at least five different shoes. All of the leather was black in color. One narrow, stacked-leather heel, likely from a woman’s shoe, was recovered from Stratum VIII. A small, wooden heel from a child’s shoe was recovered from Stratum IX, which also included a complete adult-sized counter and the turned sole from an adult-sized left shoe. Part of a man’s oxford shoe (side unknown), a piece of the bottom of a man’s left shoe, and a stacked-leather heel were contained within Stratum XV. Personal artifacts were found in 12 layers of the privy pit. Health/hygiene items were the most-prevalent personal artifacts from this lot. At least two bottles once held hair tonic and a scalp cure. The hair tonic bottle was embossed “TRADE De Lacys MARK/FRENCH/HAIR TONIC” and dated as early as 1907 (Fike 2006:234). The scalp cure bottle, embossed “COKE/DANDRUFF/CURE” (Fike 2006:96), was advertised in the St. John Daily Sun, 27 November 1901, for 50 cents and 1 dollar, available “at all druggists.” Hard-rubber tubing and seal fragments were associated with hot-water bottles used with fountain syringes for douching/ enemas. Two complete toothbrush handles made of bone were embossed “KLEANWELL” and “Caprice.” Kleanwell was part of the company Brisco-Kleanwell (Horton 1911:262), which was promoted in a number of periodicals such as the Saturday Evening Post and Literary Digest as “The Brush That Holds Its Bristles.” 177 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Fragments of metal hypodermic needle plungers were also recovered. Hypodermic needles were advertised in the 1906 Sears catalog, selling for 35 to 65 cents a dozen (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:864). A perforated lid suggested it sealed a powder container for talcum, tooth powder, or powdered soap (Putnam 1965:40). A bottle peg stopper was similar to one seen in Putnam (1965:82). Black hard-rubber fragments from a nit/lice comb and the cap end from an ointment tube were also found. Additional health and beauty aids included at least three bottles and four milk-glass cosmetic jars. One bottle, embossed “[P]OMPEIAN/ MASSAGE/CREAM” dated between 1874 and 1929 (Fike 2006:93). The remaining bottles once contained perfume (MVC = 1) and shoe polish produced by Whittemore (MVC = 1). A fragment of a glass stopper from a perfume bottle was also recovered. Jewelry was represented by an assortment of bluish gray to purplish and reddish pink glass beads, goldplated bracelet or hoop earring fragments, and a lapel pin. The lapel pin depicted two crossed flags, one resembling the American flag. Accessories included a complete pair of eyeglasses; the size and shape of the frame resembled the pince-nez style. A complete, large garnet crystal (Figure 52) was either an Almondine or Pyrope specimen (not of gem quality), and it likely came from a collector’s assemblage (Mark Candee, personal communication 2009). A pocket knife featured an inlaid pearl handle, and an umbrella was represented by the top of its handle and ribs. Two hairpins and a hair comb were represented by remnants; the former were represented by a wavy unidentified-plastic fragment and an unidentified-plastic elongated U-shaped fragment, and the latter was represented by unidentified-plastic fragments with wavy edging. A pocket watch, with a D-ring and winding stem, was also identified. A total of 169 medicine-related glass artifacts (MVC = 53) was recovered from Privy Pit 16500. Of the 24 stratigraphic levels in this feature, medicinal glass was in 17 levels, and all of these artifacts were bottles or fragments. No medicinal glass was recovered from Levels 3 and 4 and from Strata IV, VI, IX, X, and XIV. All of these levels represented fill sediments characterized by a high density of construction materials with small quantities of household material culture. Hand-finished bottles made up 53 percent (n = 89; MVC = 34) of the medicine-bottle glass, and unidentified or completely machine-made bottles were 47 percent (n = 80; MVC = 18). The density of medicinal glass throughout Privy Pit 16500 was 1.2 per cubic foot (0.034/m³), but these artifacts were more numerous in certain levels and absent or rare in others. Artifacts were most frequent and dense in Levels 5 and 8 and Strata XII, XIII, and XV. Level 5 contained about 20 percent (n = 33; MVC = 3) of the medicine-bottle glass and had a density of 2.15 per cubic foot (0.06/m³). Artifact density in Level 8 was 2.89 per cubic foot (0.081/m³), and this level contained 19 percent (n = 32; MVC = 2) of the medicine-related glass artifacts in this feature. Strata XII and XIII combined yielded only 20 artifacts (MVC = 10), 12 percent of the medicine-related glass artifacts, but had a density of 4.39 per cubic foot (0.124/m³). Stratum XV had the highest density of medicinal glass (6.18 per cubic foot or 0.175/m³) and contained 28 percent (n = 48; MVC = 11) of artifacts in this feature. The remains of 10 bottles had product information or bottle manufacturers’ marks that indicated that some of the medicinal glass found in Privy Pit 16500 had been in production since 1857. These artifacts are summarized in Table 24. The identified medicines were designed to be used to treat a wide variety of ailments, including eye distress, constipation, headache, catarrh, and a product designed specifically for female “complaints” (see Table 24). Lydia Pinkham’s Vegetable Compound was touted as a women’s curative and had an alcohol content that was 30 proof (Stage 1979; Wilson and Wilson 1971:41). All of the identified bottles and medicines were made in the United States. One bottle was made for Tucson pharmacist W. H. Hepburn of the Arcadian Pharmacy. The privy pit also produced a porcelain sherd from a toy cup, a wheel and a metal rod from a bicycle or other riding toy, and seven fragments of parian dolls, representing a minimum of two dolls. One complete doll head (Figure 53) had pink enameling and the mold number “13a” stamped on the back; it was not possible to identify the maker or mold type. The top of the doll’s head had a crown opening where a wig would have been attached. Crown openings allowed for placement of glass eyes and were sometimes plugged with cork (Goodfellow 1993:53). Another complete doll head with a crown opening exhibited hand-painted brown eyebrows, black eyelashes, pink cheeks, and a red open mouth; two white-and-black glass eyes that fit this doll were recovered. This doll appeared to have been nearly identical to a child doll made in 1894 by the Armand Marseille Company and illustrated in Foulke (2003:143). This German porcelain factory was “one of the world’s largest and best known bisque doll head manufacturers” (Doll Reference n.d.). Also recovered were two multicolored glass marbles and six multicolored ceramic marbles. One of these had blue and brown glaze and is the type commonly referred to as “Bennington.” These white ceramic marbles were made with blue glaze, brown glaze, or a mixture of the two. The term was erroneously applied under the false notion that the marbles were a product of the Rockingham potteries of Bennington, Vermont, because the glaze closely 178 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 resembles that of Rockinghamware. One characteristic common to Bennington marbles is imperfections in the glaze where marbles touched during kiln firing (American Toy Marble Museum 2009:13). One fragment of a pocket-sized tin, likely an upright pocket tobacco tin, was recovered from Level 3 of Privy Pit 16500. Tobacco tins were introduced in this form to U.S. markets in 1892 (Rock 1987:61). In addition, nine communication-related artifacts were recovered from the privy excavations. These artifacts consisted of a lead linotype printing block (Stratum IV), a pencil eraser, a colorless-glass ink bottle containing traces of dried red ink, a rubber bottle stopper from Stratum V, a typesetter’s plate (Stratum IX), a pencil eraser (Stratum X), graphite pencil fragments (Stratum XII), a fragmentary colorless-glass bottle with the embossment “[DIAMON]D INK CO/[MAD]E IN U S A/PAT’D/12-1-03,” and the bottle’s hard-rubber closure with “DIAMOND/INKS/TRADEMARK” on the top. The patent date on the bottle indicates that the bottle was produced after 1903. A total of 20 shotgun shells and cartridge casings was excavated from 12 of the 24 strata of this feature. The number of ammunition artifacts in each stratum was low throughout this feature, only between 1 and 3 ammunition artifacts per stratum. Ammunition was not recovered from strata identified as thin fill layers or in the upper three strata. Ammunition in Privy Pit 16500 represented shotgun shells and cartridges made for at least five different firearms by two manufacturers. Shotgun shells included an 8-gauge shell made by Union Metallic Cartridge. The 8-gauge was popular from the 1880s to the early 1900s for waterfowl hunting, particularly for long-range goose and duck hunting. Although this shell was banned for waterfowl hunting in 1918, it continues to be produced today and is primarily used for turkey hunting (Barnes 2006:498). Eleven 12-gauge shotgun shells made by Winchester Repeating Arms were also recovered from this feature, including four “Leader” (1901–1920) shells (Goodman 1998:n.p.). Cartridges from Privy Pit 16500 included a casing for a .30 Long made by Union Metallic Cartridge. Used between 1873 and 1920, the .30 Long was adapted for Colt, Standard, and Sharps handguns (Barnes 2006:481). Two .38 Special cartridges made by Union Metallic Cartridge were also identified. A cartridge for a 45-70 government issue in this feature was made by Winchester Repeating Arms for the “Trapdoor” Springfield rifle (Barnes 2006:97). Privy Pit 16500 produced two commercial items. The first, a copper trade token marked “GOOD FOR 5¢ IN TRADE” on the front and “47” on the back, was excavated from Level 3. A hole in the shape of a six-pointed star was punched through the center of the token. Stratum XV of this same feature produced a single U.S. silver quarter manufactured in 1894, dating the deposits in this stratum to sometime during or after that date. Transportation-related artifacts were identified in 9 of the 24 stratigraphic units from the feature. A total of 13 transportation artifacts was recovered, and they appear to have been deposited at random; no specific level contained a high density. Levels 4, 6, and 7 contained a D-ring from a harness, two partial horseshoes, a car door handle, and a standard gauge railroad spike. Strata I, V, VII, VIII, XII, and XIII yielded a tie-rod and a battery terminal clamp from an automobile, two buckles from animal tack, a horseshoe, and a complete hame (Figure 54). Privy Pit 16500 contained 2,096 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts, and different depositional behaviors were reflected in the density of these artifact types between stratigraphic levels. The density of construction artifacts was affected both by depositional behavior and excavation methods. Construction and hardware artifacts were recovered from 22 of the 24 stratigraphic units in this feature. The upper strata of this feature, Levels 1–8, were excavated in arbitrary levels and lower strata, I–XVI, were removed in natural stratigraphic layers. As a result, the upper strata were larger by volume (91.59 m3 of matrix) and accounted for 73 percent (n = 1,535) of construction artifacts. These strata also included sediments deposited in the abandoned privy to fill the void left by the privy shaft when it was no longer needed. The density of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in Levels 1–8 was 16.76 per cubic foot (0.47/ m³). Beneath these levels, Strata I–XVI contained 561 construction artifacts and had a density of 11.29 per cubic foot (0.32/m³). These strata comprised 49.68 cubic feet of matrix in this feature, which was about 35 percent of the total volume. Fifty-seven percent (n = 317) of construction artifacts in the lower half of the feature were recovered from Strata VIII, IX and XIII. Wire nails and nail fragments (n = 1,514) and window glass fragments (n = 363) made up 90 percent of the construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in Privy Pit 16500. Nails were most prevalent in Levels 1 through 8 and in Strata VII, IX, and XIII. Complete common wire nails (n = 312) demonstrated that a wide variety of nail sizes were used on this lot, including 2d (n = 3), 3d (n = 19), 4d (n = 69), 5d (n = 10), 6d (n = 98), 7d (n = 4), 8d (n = 81), 9d (n = 1), 10d (n = 12), 12d (n = 3), 16d (n = 2), 20d (n = 6), 30d (n = 3), and 50d (n = 1). Milled lumber fragments (n = 77), which may have included fragments of the privy cribbing, made up nearly 4 percent of the construction materials in this feature. The remaining 142 artifacts included electrical wire fragments (n = 11), paint can fragments (n = 18), screws (n = 9), bolts (n = 6), metal 179 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest plumbing pipe fragments (n = 9), opaque glass tile (n = 2), stone flooring-tile fragments (n = 2), a dry-cell battery, and an electrical wire attachment. Orange paint fragments were observed both on cans and separate from cans in Stratum XV. Paint fragments were weighed and not counted and, thus, they are not included in the aforementioned calculations. Excavations in Privy Pit 16500 produced a dry-cell battery fragment, a metal electrical attachment, 15 glass and 2 metal lightbulb fragments, 8 metal fragments from the globe protector of a lamp or light fixture, 1 complete and 1 partial wick adjustment mechanism from a oil or kerosene lantern, and over 150 colorlessglass shards from oil or electrical lamp globes. Nearly a dozen chimney rim fragments—colorless glass with a pinkish tinge decorated with a piecrust design—were recovered from this feature. Almost 50 glass shards decorated with pressed geometric and shell fan patterns likely came from one or more electrical lamp globes, and another several dozen decorated with dots, lines, and arrow tips likely belonged to a hanging lamp or chandelier. The remains of at least 1 oil lamp reservoir were represented by a dozen shards, and another dozen or so shards came from an electric lamp globe with “PATD NO. 717501” / “ . . . S” embossed inside of a box on the globe body. The patent dates to 1902. Twelve of the 24 stratigraphic layers of the feature included household artifacts consisting of hardware, appliance parts, a glass bottle, another household product container, and other household artifacts. Hardware consisted of one whole nonferrous key similar to a style (No. B57-8 P) advertised in Belknap Hardware & Manufacturing Company (1955:1, 163), a fragment of another nonferrous key, and a broken nonferrous latch fragment. Stove parts included a key/handle for a stove damper, a rectangular stove door with a vented opening and cast swirl design, and sheet metal fragments from the oil supply tank that sits under the burner of a kerosene oil stove. Other artifacts from this feature represented at least one nonferrous soap dish, one reliefmolded and gilded semivitreous white-bodied earthenware chamber pot, two relief-molded hardpaste porcelain vases, one nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware vase with a blue hand-painted windmill (Figure 55), one colorless-glass vase enameled with green holly and red berries, one terracotta flowerpot, a Mexican polychrome vessel, and one metal bucket. The chamber pot was stamped on the base “ROYAL/V&B.” Produced by Vodrey Pottery Co. (an East Liverpool, Ohio, manufacturer), the chamber pot dated between 1896 and 1920. The Mexican polychrome vessel exhibited a black and red linear design likely from central/southern Mexico and was a souvenir-type vessel (James E. Ayres, personal communication 2009). A bottle of sewing machine oil embossed “SPERM/SEWING MACHINE/OIL” was recovered. According to the Smithsonian National Museum of American History’s “On the Water” collection, the oil was a whale oil “used to lubricate fine machinery such as clocks, watches, and sewing machines from colonial times into the twentieth century.” The bottle was produced by the Obear-Nestor Company as early as 1894 (Toulouse 1971:373). The brass Maltese cross plate (Figure 56) may have been affixed to a door or gatepost as some kind of marker and was stamped “TUCSON/400 T[?]/1898.” Also recovered was a dowel-rod fragment (it had an additional dowel rod inserted and may have been a connection point for a chair leg), a sherd from a hardpaste porcelain figurine, a nonferrous finial with a floral pattern, a pair of shears/scissors, and a brass alarm clock. Temporally diagnostic household items from this feature indicated deposition between 1894 and 1920. Privy Pit 16500 yielded a wide assortment of vertebrate taxa, including fish, birds, and domesticated and wild mammals (Tables 25–30). Carnivore bone was recovered in Levels 3, 4, and 5, and Strata II, IX, VIII, and XVI of Privy Pit 16500. Most was not identifiable to taxa. Two carnivore lumbar vertebrae were recovered, one from Level 3 and one from Stratum XVI. Both were unfused, indicating that the animals were subadults. Cranial fragments were recovered from Level 5. A dog or coyote ulna recovered in Stratum II was fused. A fragment of a carnivore premolar was found in Stratum IX. A complete humerus from a neonatal cat was found in Stratum VII. Level 1 was dominated by bones of cattle and cow-sized mammals, which made up more than 80 percent of the collection. Far fewer sheep/goat and sheep/goat-sized mammal remains were found. A few chicken bones were present, and a few more bones were identified as chicken-sized bird. Bones of a rabbit or hare and of rabbit-sized mammal were also present. The overall percentage of bird bone in Level 2 was greater than that in Level 1. Chicken, turkey, and quail bones, and chicken- and turkey-sized bones were found, and together made up nearly 30 percent of the fauna from this level. Eggshell was also present. The percentage of bone from large domesticates such as cattle and indeterminate cow-sized and sheep/goat-sized mammals dropped accordingly. In Level 3, birds, in particular chickens, quails, and indeterminate gallinaceous birds were present, but the overall numbers dropped relative to cattle and sheep/goat-sized taxa compared to Level 2. Black-tailed jackrabbit was represented as was an indeterminate carnivore. Eggshell was also recovered. As in Level 1, over 80 percent of the collection from Level 4 was made up of bones from cowsized mammals. Sheep and sheep/goat-sized mammals were represented in much smaller numbers. Nearly 180 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 all of the bird bone was assigned to chickens or chicken-sized taxa. Eggshell was recovered. A few other specimens of rodent, fragmentary dog- or bobcat-sized mammal were also recovered. Well over half of the bone from Level 5 was identified as cow-sized, sheep/goat-sized, or sheep, but other taxa made up a sizeable portion. Black-tailed jackrabbit, indeterminate rabbit or hare, and rabbit-sized mammal bones contributed just over 10 percent of the NISP from this level. A few canid and dog- or bobcat-sized bones were present. Chickens, chicken-sized birds, doves, and quail- or dove-sized birds made up more than 15 percent of the total. Taxonomic diversity among birds was greater in Level 6 than the higher levels. Hawk and owl bones may have represented birds that had been killed to protect domestic chickens or doves, or may have been dead birds cleared away and discarded as part of yard maintenance. A raven, too, was unlikely to reflect human subsistence activities. White-winged dove bone was found, as well as duck or teal and indeterminate gallinaceous bird. Slightly over half of the bird bone could only be assigned to size class—turkey-sized, chicken-sized, quail- or dove-sized, and robin-sized. Eggshell was found in this level. Most of the remaining bone was assigned to the ubiquitous cattle, cow-sized, sheep/goat, and sheep/goatsized mammals, although a few rabbit or hare bones were noted. The remains of frog or toad and whitefooted mouse may have represented either intrusive individuals or pests discarded in the privy. Bird bone in Level 7 included goose, chicken, quail, and pigeon or dove, as well as red-tailed hawk. Eggshell was found in this level. More leporid remains were found in this level than in any higher deposits. Cow and cow-sized mammal bone made up just over 60 percent of the NISP and sheep/goat and sheep/goat-sized mammals about 5 percent. In Level 8, as in several other levels, a few taxa were present that were probably intrusive or were considered to be pests, such as frog or toad and kangaroo rat. Unlike the upper levels, birds and leporids far outnumbered the cow-sized and sheep/goat-sized mammals. Chicken, quail, mourning doves, and chickenand turkey-sized bones were found, as were a few red-tailed hawk bones. Fully half of the collection was composed of jackrabbits (both antelope and black-tailed), cottontail, rabbit or hare, and rabbit-sized mammals. Large domesticates made up a much smaller proportion of the Level 8 fauna. In Stratum I, there were goose, chicken, mourning and white-tailed doves, and chicken- and dove-sized birds; together, the birds made up nearly half of the fauna from this stratum. Of these, at least one bird, a possible meadowlark, was likely not part of a human meal, nor was the rodent bone. Black-tailed jackrabbit bone was identified. Cattle and cow-sized mammal bone outnumbered that of sheep and sheep/goat-sized mammal, but, as with Level 8, the large domesticated artiodactyls were less common in this stratum compared to many of the later levels. There were fewer birds in Stratum II than in Stratum I, but the percentage of cow bone remained low compared to later levels. A few rodents were found as were fragmentary dog or coyote and indeterminate carnivore bones. The greatest proportion of the collection was made up of leporids and possible leporids, jackrabbits, cottontails, and rabbit-sized mammal. Far fewer specimens were recovered in Stratum III than in several of the overlying strata. Of these specimens, only a very few were assigned to birds, and a few more to black-tailed jackrabbit. Sheep/goat bones outnumbered those of cow-sized mammals, but the overall numbers were extremely small. The collection from Stratum IV was quite small; one or a few bones were recovered from several taxa, including chicken, red-tailed hawk, quail- or dove-sized bird, cottontail, and sheep/goat-sized mammal. Birds made up about a third of the faunal collection from Stratum V. Of the birds, more than half were doves. The remainder was chicken and chicken-sized bone. There were also a few rodents, rabbit or hare, hare, and rabbit-sized mammals. Over half of the fauna belonged to large domesticates. Cows and cow-sized mammals outnumbered sheep/goat and sheep/goat-sized mammals. The fauna from Stratum VI was composed almost entirely of cow-sized, sheep/goat-sized mammals, and unidentifiable bone fragments. A single chicken bone was found. Most of the bones from Stratum VII were small unidentifiable fragments. No rodents, leporids, or carnivores were identified in this stratum. A few birds were found, including chicken, quail, dove, and turkey-, chicken-, and quail- or dove-sized birds. Cow-sized and sheep/goat-sized mammals contributed only about a quarter of the total NISP. The faunal collection from Stratum VIII was unusual compared to the upper levels and strata. Fish appeared for the first time in this stratum, including barracuda and California halibut. Both are marine fish which must have been imported from coastal areas. Birds exploited for food included geese, chickens, turkeys, quail, and doves (both white-winged and mourning), but were dominated by chicken and chickensized bone, which together contributed over 60 percent of the total NISP. Red-tailed hawk bone was also present, as were rodent and squirrel-sized mammal bones. Rabbit or hare, hare, and rabbit-sized mammal made up about 10 percent. The remaining bone included the only pig bone recovered in Privy Pit 16500, and the ubiquitous cattle, cow-sized mammal, sheep/goat, and sheep/goat-sized mammals. The collection from Stratum IX was quite small. Cattle and cow-sized mammal bone made up about a third. Chicken and chicken-sized bone made only a slightly lower contribution to the total NISP. Indeterminate-sized bird, 181 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest rabbit or hare, and carnivore bones were also found. The only bone recovered from Stratum XI was a single rodent-gnawed fragment from a deer-sized mammal and a handful of fragments of frog or toad bone. The frog or toad bone was very small and could easily have come from one tiny intrusive individual. Even fewer bones were found in Stratum XII than in Stratum XI. A frog or toad bone and a bone from a sheep/goatsized mammal were recovered. The bone from Stratum XIII included several fragments of bone from a cowsized mammal, a few cow bones, and one or two fragments each of turkey, pigeons or doves, chicken-sized and quail- or dove-sized birds, squirrel-sized mammals, rodent, and bony fish. Only one turkey synsacrum was recovered in Stratum XIV, and the fauna from Stratum XV consisted entirely of chicken or bone from chicken-sized taxa. The fauna from the lowest level, Stratum XVI, consisted primarily of fish (lingcod) and bird bone. Avian remains included bone from dove, chicken-sized, and quail- or dove-sized birds. A few rodent and carnivore bones were also found. Very few bones from sheep/goat-sized mammals and no bones from cow-sized taxa were identified. The uppermost levels (Levels 2–8) as well as Strata I and IV contained low frequencies of Pacific giant oyster (MNI = 10) (Table 31). Other types of taxa noted in these contexts included a single specimen each of oyster of unknown taxon (Level 4), California mussel (Mytilus californianus) (Level 5), and Nuttall’s cockle (Clinocardium nuttallii) (Level 7). The Nuttall’s cockle fragment likely originated in the Pacific Ocean and represented food remains. Stratum VII of Privy Pit 16500 contained a single piece of worked shell—a dwarf olive side-drilled bead (Figure 57). The bead, consisting of a whole shell with a perforated side wall, may have been strung and worn as a necklace or attached to another item, such as clothing. Dwarf olive beads have been recovered from prehistoric sites throughout Arizona, the greater Southwest, and Mexico, and date to as early as 6,000 years ago (Vokes 2001b, 2009). However, Euroamericans did not commonly use dwarf olive beads during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The bead may have been owned by someone with nonEuroamerican affiliation, such as Native American or Mexican-American heritage. Alternatively, during the nineteenth or early twentieth centuries, a Tucson resident may have collected the spire-lopped bead as a curio. It is also possible the bead was displaced from a prehistoric context, considering that a dama dwarf olive bead was recovered from a prehistoric context in the Joint Courts Complex project area, Pit Structure 3370 (see Volume 1, Chapter 3). Stratum VIII, dating between the late 1890s and mid-to-late 1910s, contained a few fragments of Annette’s cowry (Cypraea annettae) shell. Annette’s cowries, found in the Gulf of California, were not commonly used as a food source. Rather than food remains, the fragments may have represented one or more cowry shells that were part of a beachcombing or natural-history seashell collection. Considering that Annette’s cowry ornaments were recovered from prehistoric Pit Structure 3370 in the project area, it is possible the cowry fragments found in the privy pit were displaced from a prehistoric context or were collected as curios from a prehistoric context. Of the privy pit strata, Stratum XIII yielded the highest frequency of shellfish remains in terms of MNI and NISP. Stratum XIII also contained the greatest variety of marine shellfish taxa, including different types of oyster, scallop, mussel, and clam, all of which were likely food remains. The stratum also contained a shield limpet, which may have been consumed or was part of a beachcombing or natural-history seashell collection. All of the shellfish varieties likely originated along the West Coast. The largest number of macrobotanical samples from the Joint Courts Complex postcemetery component was collected from Privy Pit 16500. Macrobotanical data were collected from 17 of the 24 stratigraphic units in this feature, which resulted in the identification of 20 plant taxa (see Table 6). Twelve species of food plants, 6 wood species, and 2 native grass or weeds were identified throughout the feature. In general, an average of 4 species per stratum was identified in the 17 sampled strata. Strata VI (n = 7) and VII (n = 10) yielded the most identified species, about 24 percent of all identifications in this feature. In strata where more than 1 species was observed, food plants were usually associated with charred wood fragments. Because of the comparatively large collection of identified plants, Privy Pit 16500 provided an excellent snapshot of plants growing on Block 252, Lot 6, and the resources consumed within the household. Charred Douglas fir, Ponderosa pine, oak, walnut, and mesquite fragments indicate that woods typically used in construction and furnishings were eventually used as fuel and then discarded in the privy. The presence of charred wood throughout the feature suggests it was a repository for wastes burned elsewhere, possibly even household fuel sources. The remains of native grasses and horse purslane suggest vegetation growing in the vicinity of the feature also made its way into the privy. Food plants provided insight into the types of fruits and vegetables consumed on this lot as well as how ubiquitous their consumption was. Domesticated fig seeds were present in 14 of the 17 strata where 182 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 samples were collected, the greatest number of any identified plant. Raspberry seeds were identified in 9 of the 17 sampled strata. The ubiquity of these two fruits indicates they were consumed throughout the occupancy of this lot by its historical-period residents. The fact that figs and raspberries were also identified in other features across the project area and other sites in the Southwest is a demonstration of the widespread availability and consumption of these fruits during the late nineteenth century (Appendix J). The laxative properties of figs may also account for their ubiquity in historical-period archaeological features, especially privies. Other fruit species—peaches, plums, grapes, and elderberries—were identified in lower frequencies throughout the privy. Vegetable species—wild pea, beans, and ground cherries or tomatillos—were also identified at comparatively low frequencies. Both tomatillos and wild peas (Fabacae) have traditionally been considered medicinal plants (Bean and Saubel 1972:44; Castetter 1935; Hough 1898; Kay 1996:210; Stevenson 1915). Corn, barley, and wheat were sporadically identified in the privy and represented grain staples long cultivated in the Tucson Basin (Dunmire 2004). Chronology, Correlation, and Summary The diversity of stylish ceramics in Privy Pit 16500 from Japan, Europe, and the United States provides insight into the breadth of the tableware market and the greater distribution network of mass-produced products at the end of the nineteenth century. Throughout the nineteenth century, England dominated the export tableware market in the United States. Large potteries concentrated in Staffordshire were assisted by an accompanying network of agents, merchants, and exporters in the United States and United Kingdom. By the late nineteenth century, other manufacturing centers had gained ground in the tableware market. In the United States, semivitreous earthenware vessels were being produced in quantities large enough to take a larger share of the market. These vessels were of respectable quality and the low transportation costs made domestic wares less expensive. Specialized importers based in New York City, like L. Strauss and Sons and P. H. Leonard, began obtaining fashionable products from France and Bavaria. Additionally, the opening of Japan to western trade provided a new, exotic ceramic type to American consumers hungry for items that allowed them to express worldly sophistication. These hand-painted, high-quality vessels fit right into Victorian concepts of displays of affluence (Mullins 2001:160). The expansion of distribution networks that included manufacturers, warehouses, wholesalers, and transportation systems provided a diversity of products, like tableware, at increasingly inexpensive prices (Porter and Livesay 1989:11). Food and beverage containers from the privy pit included those that contained olive oil, condiments, milk, and beverages. Food and beverage containers from this feature that were temporally diagnostic suggest deposition between the initial occupation of the lot and the 1920s. One condiment bottle predated 1900, indicating deposition during the Snyder or Corbett tenures. Food jars were concentrated in the lower to middle stratigraphic layers and included most of the home canning jars vs. commercially packaged foodstuffs. One sun-colored amethyst jar indicated manufacture before the rental period began in 1917. Upper stratigraphic layers of the privy yielded more metal food cans than lower levels, indicating that later residents relied more on commercially packed foods than home preserves. Two of the lower strata of this privy contained 84 percent of the liquor containers in the entire feature, most of which were wine or champagne bottle shards. Temporal data retrieved from liquor containers in this feature indicate production dates through the occupation of the earliest tenants, including the Snyder, Corbett, and Finley residencies. A metate fragment recovered from Privy Pit 16500 cannot be attributed to a specific household. Although it may reflect traditional Native American or Mexican culinary influences, no household residents were identified that would be expected to employ a metate as traditional technology. The artifact may represent incorporation of local traditions into the household toolkit, or it may have been a manuport from a nearby prehistoric context. Glass and metal tablewares from the privy were standard, utilitarian vessels and equipment from the period; no temporally diagnostic artifacts were recovered in this category that could refine the assignment of strata to particular households. Both men’s and women’s clothing were represented in this feature; most were retrieved from the middle to lower stratigraphic layers. These included mostly corsetry hardware and undecorated buttons. The remains of at least five shoes were recovered from the feature; at least one man’s, one woman’s, and one child’s shoe were represented. 183 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest The feature also yielded a number of health and hygiene artifacts, including containers for scalp and tooth preparations, douche/enema syringe fragments, nit/lice combs, and hypodermic needle fragments. The latter suggested that at least one resident treated a health problem at home. Jewelry fragments and perfume and shoe polish containers were recovered. One jar held a massage cream that dated well within the pre-1904 time period. Medicine containers in the collection did not reveal temporal data but indicated that household occupants treated common ailments at home, including eye distress, constipation, headache, catarrh, and “female complaints.” The contents of one bottle were compounded by a local Tucson druggist. Archival data indicated that the Henry household included three children ca. 1910. Artifacts representing 14 toys were identified in the privy pit. Communication artifacts from the feature included a printer’s block (perhaps from the Tucson Newspapers building across Miltenberg Street to the south) and an ink bottle dating from the last years this privy was in use. Of interest in the collection from this feature was a large, natural garnet that likely came from a collector’s set. Twenty pieces of ammunition were recovered from the privy pit and included both shotgun shells and rifle ammunition casings. The shotgun shells may have accounted for the bones of doves, quail, and other game birds in the feature. None of the ammunition types was present in great quantities, but it appears that at least one household member hunted recreationally or supplemented the family stores by hunting from time to time. Transportation-related artifacts consisted of seven pieces of tack, three automobile artifacts, and one railroad spike. That twice as many pieces of tack were recovered is not surprising; occupants likely relied on horse and wagon transportation until about the time this privy was abandoned. Hardware and construction artifacts from the feature included standard household items; none was temporally diagnostic. Deposition in this feature spanned the transition from oil/kerosene lighting to electrical lighting, and artifacts representing both technologies were recovered. Household items included one metal Tucson marker dated 1898. As discussed, Privy Pit 16500 yielded a wide assortment of vertebrate taxa, including fish, birds, and domesticated and wild mammals (see Tables 25–30). No fish were found in deposits above Stratum VIII. Fauna from the feature included a diverse array of taxa, including fish, wild and domesticated birds, and wild and domesticated mammals. The taxa represented a variety of activities. Many bones represented the remains of meals, but others were likely from intrusive animals, or represented disposal of pests. In terms of MNI, NISP, and weight, this privy pit yielded the highest frequency of analyzed invertebrate remains of any feature in the project area, consisting of mostly Pacific giant oyster, as well as lower frequencies of other edible and nonedible shellfish taxa, and a shell bead. Invertebrate remains recovered from Privy Pit 16500 made up nearly 60 percent of the total weight and approximately 35 percent of the total MNI of analyzed invertebrate remains recovered from Joint Courts Complex postcemetery features. Most of the shells recovered from the feature were probably food residue, whereas the remainder may have been collected from a visit to the seashore or had been part of seashell collection. Interestingly, with the exception of Stratum II and the two lowermost strata, Pacific giant oyster was recovered from all levels and strata containing analyzed invertebrate remains. The feature was in use between the late 1890s and mid-to-late 1910s. This time range coincided with the early stages of the Pacific giant oyster industry along the West Coast. The overall ubiquity of the oyster remains recovered from the different strata indicate that, although present in relatively small quantities, oysters shells were fairly regularly deposited in the privy. Plants identified in Privy Pit 16500 indicated that residents of Block 252, Lots 6 and 7, used a wide range of plants in their culinary assemblage and built environment. Certain native foods valued by Native American and Mexican predecessors, including raspberries, corn, beans, and tomatillos, continued to be consumed into the twentieth century. Old World imports like figs, wheat, peaches, barley, and plums added to the robustness of the North American diet. The presence of certain foods, specifically figs and raspberries, throughout the stratigraphic units of this feature and in other historical-period sites indicates a longevity and ubiquity of certain elements of the southwestern diet. Wood from Douglas fir, Ponderosa and other pines, and mesquite are indicators of construction and fuel resources historically used by Tucson residents. Native grasses and weeds continued to grow in their traditional habitat as was seen by the presence of horse purslane and members of the Poaceae genus. In sum, macrobotanical data from Privy Pit 16500 provided an invaluable insight into both the vegetation used and the native vegetation in turn-of-the-twentieth century Tucson. The residential period was represented by a portion of the house foundation, a privy, three cesspits, a refuse deposit, and landscaping pits. Privy Pit 16500 was the only wood-lined example in the project area, and it is one of only a few that has been identified archaeologically in the Tucson Basin. It is assumed that the privy fell out of use when the neighborhood received sewer service around 1902; however, it may have continued to be used as a refuse receptacle for a short time after that date. Almost certainly, the privy pit was filled by 1919, when the superstructure was enlarged and used as an automobile garage. Most temporally 184 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 diagnostic data culled from artifacts in this feature predate 1904, but some artifacts from that period had production dates that extended until 1920 and beyond. It is possible the privy was used more often as a refuse dump than a toilet during its lifetime, perhaps because of the introduction of sanitary sewers at the turn of the twentieth century. It is also possible that the privy was cleaned periodically during its use-life. The artifact-based dates available from Privy Pit 16500 indicate that privy use of the feature ended around 1904 and that it was used primarily for refuse disposal thereafter. There does, however, appear to be evidence of lime usage in the middle and near the end of Stage 1, dating between the later years of privy use. These layers of lime were interleaved with artifact-dense layers and occurred below a thick deposit of large stones, which appeared to cap the feature. The stones were covered with a thin layer of modern debris that was most likely intrusive to the feature, resulting from demolition activities during this investigation. Finally, the commercial period for this block and lots was represented by the foundation and a portion of the superstructure of Building J and numerous utility trenches. Commercial activities on Lots 6 and 7 were represented by a bowling pin return pit, a grease pit, and the foundation of a bank vault. 185 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 49. Block 252, Lots 11 and 12, with adjacent Council Street. 186 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 50. From the Arizona Daily Star of February 23, 1955. (© Copyright Tucson Citizen. Reproduced with permission.) 187 Figure 51. Feature Profile of Privy Pit 16500. Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 188 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 52. Hand-drawn garnet from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500 (Inventory No. 080007068). Figure 53. Complete doll head from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500 (Inventory No. 080006EB3). 189 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 54. Horse collar hame from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500 (Inventory No. 080006BD5). 190 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 55. Hand-painted vase from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500 (Inventory No. 080007060). 191 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 56. Maltese cross-shaped marker plate from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500 (Inventory No. 08000BD41). Figure 57. Dwarf olive spire-lopped bead from Block 252, Lot 6, Privy Pit 16500 (Inventory No. 080006EDF). 192 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Table 22. Matching Ceramic Sets in Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 Vessel Type (MVC) Level/Strata Saucer (3) Plate (2), cup (2) Saucer (2) Description Levels 1, 2, 3, 6 Semivitreous earthenware with brown transfer printed decoration. Levels 3, 4, 6 Semivitreous earthenware with relief-molded vine and flowers along rim. Level 4 Hardpaste porcelain with hand-painted floral motif. Plate (3) Levels 2, 4, 6 Hardpaste porcelain with enameled polychrome landscape motif and blue-banded rim. Saucer (2) Strata IV, V Hardpaste porcelain with flow-blue floral transfer print with gilded accents. Cup (2) Strata II, V Hardpaste porcelain with aerography background with floral decal. Level 5, Strata IV, V Asian hardpaste porcelain with enameled calligraphy and gilded and relief-molded rim. Strata I, V Hardpaste porcelain polychrome floral decal. Unknown (1), cup (2), bowl (1) Stratum VIII Semivitreous earthenware with stippled relief molding and gold gilding. Cup (1), plate (1) Stratum VIII Semivitreous earthenware with scalloped edge and stippled relief molding. Saucer (3) Cup (1), butter pat (1) Plate (1) Strata XV, XVI Asian hardpaste porcelain with polychrome enameled village and landscape. Key: MVC = minimum vessel count. Table 23. Identified Makers’ Marks in Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 Manufacturer Country of Origin Level/Stratum United States Level 3 United Kingdom Level 5 United States Level 5 Japan Level 7 United States Level 8 Victorian Porcelain, Limoges France Stratum I W. H. Grindley and Company United Kingdom Strata VIII and IX France Stratum VIII “Royal Ironstone” United Kingdom Stratum VIII New Wharf Pottery “Nelson” United Kingdom Stratum VIII Bavaria Stratum VIII Knowles, Taylor, Knowles “White Granite” United States Stratum XII P. H. Leonard United States Stratum XV Homer Laughlin “Golden Gate” United States Stratum XV Homer Laughlin Grindley and Company L. Strauss and Son Japanese mark Homer Laughlin “Genesee” Haviland and Company, Limoges — 193 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 24. Medicine Bottle Summary for Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 Level/ Stratum MVC Manufacturer/ Product Origin Dates of Production Product Use Reference 6 1 Murine Eye Wash Chicago, Illinois 1857–1935 eye remedy Fike 2006:209 VII 1 Wyeth and Company Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1899–1931 container, unknown Fike 2006:121, contents 187 XI 1 Arcadian Pharmacy Tucson, Arizona 1897–1907 container, unknown Tucson City contents Directory 1917 XI 1 Whitall Tatum and Company Millville, New Jersey 1857–1935 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:544 XV 1 Pitcher’s Castoria United States 1863–1923 gastrointestinal Fike 2006:177 XV 2 Bromo-Caffeine Baltimore, Maryland 1890s–1948 headache Fike 2006:155 XV 1 Parke Davis and Company Detroit, Michigan 1875–present container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:417 XV 1 Perunia/Dr. Samuel B. Hartman and Company United States 1877–1948 catarrh treatment Fike 2006:62 XVI 1 Lydia Pinkham’s Lynn, Massachusetts Vegetable Compound 1873–1983 female “complaints” Fike 2006:85 Key: MVC = minimum vessel count. Table 25. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Fish and Amphibians) Level/Stratum Lingcod Barracudas California Halibut Bony Fish Frog or Toad Toad — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — Level 1 NISP % Level 2 NISP % Level 3 NISP % Level 4 NISP % Level 5 NISP % 0.81 Level 6 NISP — — — — — % 1 0.59 Level 7 NISP % 194 — — — — — — Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Level/Stratum Lingcod Barracudas California Halibut Bony Fish Frog or Toad Toad — — — — 1 — Level 8 NISP % 0.46 Stratum I NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2 3 — — — 0.49 1.00 1 — — — — — — 6 — % Stratum II NISP % Stratum III NISP % Stratum IV NISP % Stratum V NISP % Stratum VI NISP % Stratum VII NISP % Stratum VIII NISP % Stratum IX NISP — % 3.45 Stratum XI NISP — — % 100.00 Stratum XII NISP — — — — % 13 — 62.00 Stratum XIII NISP — — — % 1 — — — — 7.14 Stratum XIV NISP — — — — continued on next page 195 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Level/Stratum Lingcod Barracudas California Halibut Bony Fish Frog or Toad Toad — — — — — — 12 — — — — — 12 3 3 1 21 1 0.49 0.12 0.12 0.04 0.86 0.04 % Stratum XV NISP % Stratum XVI NISP % 30.00 Total NISP % Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 196 % NISP Level 8 % NISP Level 7 % NISP Level 6 % NISP Level 5 % NISP Level 4 % NISP Level 3 % NISP Level 2 % NISP Level 1 Level/ Stratum Bean Geese — 0.33 1 — — — — — — Dabbling Ducks and Teals — — — 1.18 1.78 — 2 — 0.91 2 2.30 7 — 1.64 2 2.9 7 0.93 0.93 — 1 7.29 7 5.00 7 Domestic Chicken 1 — — Gallinaceous Birds 3 — — — — — Wild or Domestic Turkey — — — — — — 1.04 1 — Gambel's Quail 0.46 1 0.66 2 — — — 0.93 1 1.04 1 — Buzzard Hawks — — 1.18 2 — — — — — Red-Tailed Hawk 1.83 4 1.32 4 2.37 4 — — — — — Great Horned Owl 0 — — 0.59 1 — — — — — Pigeons and Doves 0.46 1 2.30 7 — — — — — — Zenaida Doves — — — 1.64 2 — — — — Rock Dove — — — — — — — — Mourning Dove 0.91 2 — — — — — — — White-Winged Dove — — — — — — — — Common Raven — — 0.59 1 — — — — — — — — — — 0.93 1 — — Great-Tailed Grackle Meadowlark — — — — — — — — Table 26. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Birds) Turkey-sized Bird 14 2.00 3 Chicken-sized Bird 1.37 3 — 2.37 4 — — — 2 — 1.87 2 — — Quail or Dove-sized Bird 5.02 11 9.87 30 4.73 8 Robin-sized Bird 3.65 8 — 2.37 4 — — — — — Bird, Size Indeterminate 2.74 6 0.66 2 — — 0.83 2 — — — 9 10 4 — 14 3 3 — Eggshell continued on next page — — 1.18 2 11.48 1.64 14 7.05 17 8.41 9 4.17 14.58 4 — Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 197 198 % NISP Stratum IX % NISP Stratum VIII % NISP Stratum VII % NISP Stratum VI % NISP Stratum V % NISP Stratum IV % NISP Stratum III % NISP Stratum II % NISP Stratum I Level/ Stratum Bean Geese — 1.00 5 — — — — — — 7.14 3 Dabbling Ducks and Teals — — — — — — — — — Gallinaceous Birds — 1.00 3 — — — — — — — Domestic Chicken 21.00 6 32 133 5.00 9 3.00 1 2.00 1 7.00 1 — — 7.14 3 Wild or Domestic Turkey 2 2.00 3 — — — — — — Gambel's Quail — — <1.00 <1.00 2 — — — — — — — Buzzard Hawks — — — — — 7.00 1 — — — Red-Tailed Hawk — <1.00 1 — — — 7.00 1 — — — Great Horned Owl — — — — — — — — — Pigeons and Doves — — — — 3.00 2 — — 1.67 1 — Zenaida Doves — <1.00 1 1.00 1 — 5.00 3 — — — — Rock Dove — — — — — — — — — Mourning Dove 6 — — 8.00 5 — — — 4.76 2 White-Winged Dove — — <1.00 1.00 1 — — 2.00 1 — — 1.67 1 4.76 2 Common Raven — — — — — — — — — Great-Tailed Grackle — — — — — — — — — Meadowlark — — — — — — — — 2.38 1 Turkey-sized Bird — — 1.00 1 — — 1 — 3.33 2 7.14 3 Quail or Dove-sized Bird 1 1.00 1 — — 7.00 2 — 32.00 <1.00 132 3.00 5 — 12.00 8 13.00 7.00 2 12.5 12.5 — 1 1.67 1 11.9 5 Chicken-sized Bird 1 — — Robin-sized Bird — — — — — — — — — Bird, Size Indeterminate 14.00 4 <1.00 1 — — — — — — 2.38 1 Eggshell — — — — — — — 7 — Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Bean Geese 0.37 9 — — — — — — Dabbling Ducks and Teals 0.12 3 — — — — — — Gallinaceous Birds Domestic Chicken 263 — 99.00 76 — — — — 4 — — — 7.15 1 — — Wild or Domestic Turkey 0.24 10.97 0.16 6 — — — — — — Gambel's Quail 0.41 10 — — — — — — Buzzard Hawks 0.12 3 — — — — — — 0.57 14 — — — — — — Red-Tailed Hawk Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. % NISP Total % NISP Stratum XVI % NISP Stratum XV % NISP Stratum XIV % NISP Stratum XIII % NISP Stratum XII % NISP Stratum XI Level/ Stratum Great Horned Owl 0.04 1 — — — — — — Pigeons and Doves 0.85 21 20.00 8 — — 14.29 2 — — Zenaida Doves 0.28 7 — — — — — — Rock Dove 0.04 1 3.00 1 — — — — — Mourning Dove 0.28 7 — — — — — — White-Winged Dove 0.53 13 — — — — — — Common Raven 0.04 1 — — — — — — Great-Tailed Grackle 0.04 1 — — — — — — Meadowlark 0.04 1 — — — — — — Turkey-sized Bird Chicken-sized Bird 9 — — 7.14 1 — — 266 24 5.00 23.00 2 1.00 1 — 7.14 1 — — Quail or Dove-sized Bird 0.53 11.86 0.97 13 — — — — — — Robin-sized Bird 0.49 12 — — — — — — Bird, Size Indeterminate 1.22 16 — — — — — — Eggshell 50 — — — — — — Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 199 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 27. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Very Small and Small Mammals) Level/Stratum Rodent Mice, Rats, Voles, and Lemmings White-Footed Mouse Kangaroo Rats and Pocket Mice Kangaroo Rat Squirrel-sized Mammal Mouse-sized Mammal — — — — — — — — 1.00 — — — — — — — — 1.00 — Level 1 NISP % Level 2 NISP % 1.04 Level 3 NISP 1.00 % 0.93 — 0.93 Level 4 NISP 2.00 — — — — — — % 0.83 — — — — — — — — — 1.00 — — — — Level 5 NISP % Level 6 NISP % 0.59 Level 7 NISP 1.00 % 0.33 — — — — — — — — 1.00 1.00 1.00 10.00 0.46 0.46 0.46 4.57 — — 5.00 — Level 8 NISP — % Stratum I NISP 1.00 % 2.38 — — — — — — — — Stratum II NISP — % 8.33 Stratum III NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1.00 — — — — — — % Stratum IV NISP % Stratum V NISP 200 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Mice, Rats, Voles, and Lemmings White-Footed Mouse Kangaroo Rats and Pocket Mice Kangaroo Rat Squirrel-sized Mammal Mouse-sized Mammal — — — — — — — — — — — — — — NISP 1.00 — — — — 1.00 — % <1.00 Level/Stratum % Rodent 2.00 Stratum VI NISP % Stratum VII NISP % Stratum VIII <1.00 Stratum IX NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1.00 — % Stratum XI NISP % Stratum XII NISP % Stratum XIII NISP % 7.14 Stratum XIV NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — NISP 4.00 — — — — — — % 10.00 % Stratum XV NISP % Stratum XVI Total NISP 11.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 9.00 10.00 % 0.45 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.37 0.41 Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 201 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 28. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Rabbit-Sized Mammals) Level/Stratum Rabbit or Hare Cottontail Hare Antelope Jackrabbit Black-Tailed Jackrabbit Rabbit-Sized Mammal 1 — — — — 4 Level 1 NISP % 1.00 3.00 Level 2 NISP — — — — — — 5 — — — 3 5 2.80 4.67 % Level 3 NISP % 4.67 Level 4 NISP — — — — — — 1 — — — 9.00 4 7.38 3.28 % Level 5 NISP % 0.82 Level 6 NISP % 3 — — — — — — 51 — — — 8 48 39 3.65 21.92 17.81 — 11 — 1.78 Level 7 NISP — % 16.78 Level 8 NISP % 17 2 7.76 0.91 — — — Stratum I NISP — % 26.19 Stratum II NISP % 8 1 13.33 1.67 — — — — — 18 30.00 Stratum III NISP — — % 2 — 25.00 Stratum IV NISP — % 3 — — — 20.00 1 7.00 Stratum V NISP 202 2 — 2 — — 3 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Level/Stratum % Rabbit or Hare Cottontail 3.00 Hare Antelope Jackrabbit Black-Tailed Jackrabbit 3.00 Rabbit-Sized Mammal 5.00 Stratum VI NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — 29 — 7 — — 1 % Stratum VII NISP % Stratum VIII NISP % 7.00 2.00 <1.00 Stratum IX NISP % 6 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 73 6 60 8 73 75 2.97 0.24 2.44 0.32 2.97 3.05 21.00 Stratum XI NISP % Stratum XII NISP % Stratum XIII NISP % 7.14 Stratum XIV NISP % Stratum XV NISP % Stratum XVI NISP % Total NISP % Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 203 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 29. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Large Mammals) Level/Stratum Carnivore Coyotes, Dogs, Foxes, and Wolves Dog or Coyote Dog- or Bobcat-Sized Mammal Domestic Cat — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — 1 — Level 1 NISP % Level 2 NISP % Level 3 NISP % 0.93 Level 4 NISP — % 0.41 Level 5 NISP — % 1 — 0.82 4 — 3.28 Level 6 NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 3 — 1.67 5.00 % Level 7 NISP % Level 8 NISP % Stratum I NISP % Stratum II NISP % Stratum III NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — % Stratum IV NISP % Stratum V NISP 204 Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Level/Stratum Carnivore Coyotes, Dogs, Foxes, and Wolves Dog or Coyote Dog- or Bobcat-Sized Mammal Domestic Cat — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 % Stratum VI NISP % Stratum VII NISP % Stratum VIII NISP % <1.00 Stratum IX NISP % 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — 3 1 1 8 1 0.12 0.04 0.04 0.32 0.04 4.00 Stratum XI NISP % Stratum XII NISP % Stratum XIII NISP % Stratum XIV NISP % Stratum XV NISP % Stratum XVI NISP % 3.00 Total NISP % Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 205 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 30. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 (Very-Large, Extra-Large, and IndeterminateSized Mammals) Level/ Stratum Pig Cow Sheep Sheep/ Goat Cow-Sized Mammal Sheep/GoatSized Mammal Mammal, Size Indeterminate Unidentifiable — 1 — 1 112 8 — — 1.00 82.00 6.00 — 64 3 — — 66.67 3.13 31 44 — — 28.97 41.12 210 — — — 76 6 — — 62.30 4.92 3 102 26 — — 1.78 60.36 15.38 1 179 12 — 1 0.33 58.88 3.95 — 30 23 13.70 10.50 6 Level 1 NISP % 1.00 Level 2 NISP — % 1 — 1.04 Level 3 NISP — % 1 — — 0.93 Level 4 NISP — — % 2 — 0.79 83.33 Level 5 NISP — — % 1 — 0.82 Level 6 NISP — % 2 — 1.18 Level 7 NISP — % 6 — 1.97 0.33 Level 8 NISP — — — — — 1 1 — 14.29 2.38 2.38 16 2 1 26.67 3.33 1.67 — 1 — 3 33.00 12.50 — — % Stratum I NISP — % 1 1 2.38 2.38 — — — Stratum II NISP — — % — Stratum III NISP — — — % — 37.50 Stratum IV NISP — — — % 2 3 13.00 20.00 3 13 — Stratum V NISP 206 — 9 — 4 9 — Chapter 10 • Block 252, Lots 6 and 7 Level/ Stratum Pig % Cow Sheep 14.00 Sheep/ Goat Cow-Sized Mammal Sheep/GoatSized Mammal Mammal, Size Indeterminate 6.00 14.00 5.00 20.00 — 9 10 — 24.00 26.00 14 3 8.00 16.00 12 21 16 3.00 5.00 4.00 — 4 Unidentifiable Stratum VI NISP — — — % 18 47.00 Stratum VII NISP — — — — % — 148 80.00 Stratum VIII NISP % 4 25 1.00 6.00 — 5 — — — — — — Stratum IX NISP % — 18.00 14.00 Stratum XI NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — % Stratum XII NISP % 50.00 Stratum XIII NISP — % 2 — — 14.29 4 28.57 Stratum XIV NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2 1 — 5 3 % Stratum XV NISP % Stratum XVI NISP % Total NISP % 4 53 4 21 888 162 22 167 0.16 2.15 0.16 1.46 36.07 6.58 0.89 6.78 Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 207 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 31. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Feature 16500, Block 252, Lot 6 MNI NISP MNI NISP Wt. (g) 5.4 11.3 2.9 24.0 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 5 11 28.7 59.9 9.2 76.0 1 8 2 5 — — 1 2 — — — — — 1 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 1 Pacific giant oyster 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Unidentifiable oyster — — — — 1 1 — Pacific calico scallop — — — — — — Speckled scallop — — — — — Unidentifiable scallop — — — — Nuttall’s cockle — — — Annette’s cowry — — — 11.6 100.0 27.5 91.1 2.7 8.9 229.1 99.3 1.7 0.7 1 16 493.6 99.8 174.2 100.0 1 20 497.6 100.0 44.4 100.0 — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 1 3.5 — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 3 4.9 10.2 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 8 3.8 7.9 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 3 1.1 2.3 — — — — 1 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 3 — — 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.2 3.1 100.0 Shield limpet — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 1 Unidentifiable nacre — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 2 0.01100.0 — — — — — — Total 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 9 2 5 1 2 0.01100.0 1 2 1 3 108.7 100.0 Wt. (%) NISP Wt. (%) MNI 2 California mussel Wt. (g) NISP Wt. (%) MNI 1 — Wt. (g) NISP — — Wt. % MNI — — Wt. (g) NISP Wt. (%) MNI — NISP — MNI — NISP — MNI — NISP — MNI — NISPb — — Wt. (g) Stratum XIII NISP Wt. (%) Stratum VIII — — Wt. (g) Stratum IV MNI Wt. (%) Stratum II — — Wt. (g) Stratum I NISP Wt. (%) Level 8 — — Wt. (g) Level 7 MNI Wt. (%) Level 6 — Thin-shell — littleneck clam 108.7 100.0 Wt. (g) Level 5 Wt. (%) Wt. (g) Wt. (%) Wt. (g) Level 4 MNIa Wt. (g) Common Name Level 3 Wt. (%) Level 2 11.6 100.0 30.2 100.0 12.1 100.0 230.8 100.0 2 17 494.6 100.0 174.2 100.0 Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. 208 1 20 497.6 100.0 44.4 100.0 3.1 100.0 11 29 47.9 7.3 C hapter  1 1 Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 52/58 Miltenberg Street, 78 Grossetta Avenue Lots 11, 12, and 13 of Block 252 were sold to Julius Goldbaum at the auction of 1889. He held the property for 2 years before transferring it to his wife, Jennie. Approximately a year later, Jennie A. Goldbaum sold all three undeveloped lots to Charles C. Rasmussen. It was probably Rasmussen who built the two residential structures on Lot 13. The structures are visible in Figure 12, which dates from between 1896 and 1899. Very little is known of the early residents of these houses, other than that Charles Rasmussen does not seem to have been among them. What little we know of Rasmussen comes from the O’Quinn Title and Abstract Co. (n.d) and a few early Tucson city directories (TCD 1897, 1899), which record his address at 210 N. 4th Avenue, less than 1/4 of a mile east of the project area. However, the 1900 Federal Census did record the families of a carpenter, Peter Rivers, and a grocer, Daniel Lucid, at the two addresses. Daniel Lucid and his wife, Lilia Jageman, had a son, Charles Lucid, in 1900 while living on Grossetta Avenue (Lucid 1900). Charles Rasmussen died sometime between 1899 and 1901, although his estate was not settled until 1902. It was in that year that the three lots were transferred to Olga M. Walsh, who was equally invisible in the historical records consulted during this investigation. Charles Rasmussen had owned other lots in the project area as well; these were also transferred to Olga Walsh. A mortgage taken out at the same time seems to indicate that Walsh purchased the properties, rather than inheriting them. The Walsh family owned these lots until 1923, when they were sold to Dan Brewster. In addition to the houses built by Rasmussen, the 1901 Sanborn map also depicts two other buildings. Both were located on Lot 11, although neither was represented by archaeological remains. The first of these structures is labeled “Carptr” on the Sanborn map, indicating a carpenter’s workspace or shop—perhaps the workshop of Peter Rivers. This building had been removed by 1904 (Sanborn 1904). The second building lasted a while longer, disappearing from maps between 1914 and 1919 (Sanborn 1914 and 1919). It was recorded as a small outbuilding in the northwest corner of Lot 11. At least two sides of the structure were not enclosed (Sanborn 1901). One interpretation is that this building was in some way connected to the adjacent building on Lot 6, which may have functioned as an outhouse. The unidentified structure on Lot 11 does not appear on maps after the structure on Lot 6 became a garage, sometime between 1914 and 1919. The two buildings that Rasmussen built were located at 52 Miltenberg Street and 78 Grossetta Avenue, the south and north buildings respectively (Figure 58), although between 1914 and 1917, 52 Miltenberg Street was reassigned the address 58 Miltenberg Street (Sanborn 1914; TCD 1917). These buildings were probably constructed around the same time and appear to have been built as mirror images of each other. They were of a similar size and shape, each measuring around 850 square feet; 78 Grossetta Avenue (Building D) had a stairwell into the basement at the southwest corner, and the stairwell at 52 Miltenberg Street was located on the northwest corner (Building C). Further, directly between the two houses was a single privy (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Privy Pit 650). It seems the buildings were intended to be rental properties from the beginning; unfortunately, until 1917, it is difficult to determine occupants as no reverse lookup is available in the city directories until then. Between 1917 and 1923, the houses were occupied by two families, those of Alejandro R. Bravo and Fernando Gutierrez. Alejandro Bravo and his wife, Elvira Morafa, were both born in Sonora, Mexico; Alejandro was born in Ures in 1875 (ASBH BVS 1940a), and Elvira in Altar. They had at least two sons, both born in Tucson. Alejandro M. Bravo was born in 1903, at which time the elder Alejandro’s occupation was listed as truck driver, and Elvira was a housewife (ASBH 209 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest BVS 1903). Arthur or Arturo was born in 1905 (ASBH BVS 1940b). A daughter, Cucua Bravo was born in 1907 (ASDH DVS 1943a). Elvira appears to have delivered her first child alone; no physician or midwife is listed on Alejandro Jr.’s birth certificate and Elvira is the sole signature as witness of birth. In 1920, the younger Alejandro was listed as an employee of Southern Pacific Railroad, and by 1923 his brother was as well. Both sons were living with their father in 1923 (see Appendix D). The Bravos lived at 78 Grossetta Avenue in 1920 and 1921, and 58 Miltenberg Street in 1922 and 1923. A records search yielded a 1948 death certificate for a Fernando Gutierrez who lived in Tucson at this time (ASDH DVS 1948), but the individual cannot be confidently identified as the man who lived in this neighborhood. Residential History: 36–54 Miltenberg Street, 76–82 Grossetta Avenue In 1923, 58 Miltenberg Street (Building C) was razed and the Brewster Apartments were built on Lots 11, 12, and 13. Turned into a duplex, 78 Grossetta Avenue (Building D) was associated with the apartments and renumbered to 80 and 82 Grossetta Avenue. The Brewster Apartments were listed at 36–54 Miltenberg Street and 76–82 Grossetta Avenue. The new apartment building was composed of three more-or-less identical blocks, with four apartments each. Except for Building D, these structures remained standing until 1955, when the whole area was razed to make a parking lot. Building D was demolished in 1936, when the Brewster Apartments became Melrose Court. Because a series of carports were erected in an old adobe shed (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building W) at that time, it seems likely that Building D was sacrificed to allow automobiles access to the back of the complex. Over the years there were more than 110 heads of household listed at the Brewster Apartments and Melrose Court, with almost as many occupations (see Appendix D). Waitresses, mechanics, students, and tourists all called the apartments home. Among these were James F. Hartin, a salesman at Russel Electric from Arkansas who came to Arizona in 1919 and was later to die of tuberculosis (ASDH DVS 1950), and Mrs. Ida Sines in 1930 who evidently became Mrs. Ida Guist in 1931 (see Appendix D) and died at home at 38 Miltenberg Street that same year (ASBH BVS 1931). Wisconsin-born Peter Reimer, a grocer, lived at 40 Miltenberg Street in 1925. He was married to Francis Reimer at the time of his death only a few years later, at which time he had resided in Arizona for only 5 years (ASBH BVS 1927a). Joseph A. Hunter lived for several years in the mid-1920s at 46 Miltenberg Street. Joseph was a mining engineer, born in Illinois (ASDH DVS 1943b), and a veteran of the Spanish American War. He was married to Lotta Hunter at the time of his death. Archival sources indicate that Richard Pyatt lived at 82 Grossetta Avenue for a short time. Richard, a widowed farmer from Illinois, was listed at this address in 1933, but he died early in the year from tuberculosis at Young’s Rest Ranch (ASBH BVS 1933a). He had been in Tucson for 1 year and 2 months at that time. R. E. Belton was living at 78 Grossetta Avenue when he died in 1936 (ASBH BVS 1936). Robert D. Hayes, an employee of Mountain States Telephone and Telegraph, lived at 50 Miltenberg Street in 1930. Two years earlier, he and his wife Virginia Bertha Ingram, lived at Ransom’s Camp, a Tucson auto camp, where Virginia gave birth to a daughter, Frances Eileen Hayes (ASBH BVS 1928a). Robert, born in California, was a machinist helper at the Southern Pacific railroad shops at that time; Virginia was born in Tucson. When the complex was constructed, the project area was comfortably residential; the apartments were surrounded by over 15 other residential structures, open yards, and landscaping. However, by the time Melrose Court was demolished, there were only 3 other houses left in the project area, and they were demolished within 3 years. Most of the surrounding space had been commercialized or paved over. The residential period of these lots was one of the longest within the project area. However, most of the highly informative archaeological features dated to the earliest episode of occupation (see Figure 58). Elements of both houses built by Charles Rasmussen were recovered (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Buildings C and D), as was the associated privy pit (Privy Pit 650). Several refuse features were also discovered on these lots. Two of these (Refuse Pits 7841 and 7848) were probably related to the residence at 250 N. Stone Avenue (see Figure 49), which was the closest residential structure (see Chapter 10). Two other pits on the lots have unknown associations; they were not in close proximity to any residence (Refuse Pits 7682 and 10029). Another two refuse features were probably related to the houses on Lot 13 (Refuse Deposit 642 and Refuse Pit 7564). Refuse Pit 7564, located northwest of Privy Pit 650, was associated with these houses and probably represented a single deposit of household refuse. Refuse Deposit 642 probably resulted from 210 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 dumping into a large borrow pit and may have represented an attempt to level the area prior to the construction of Buildings C and D (see Figure 58). In any case, the foundation of Building D superimposed at least part of this deposit. It is also possible the pit represented a borrow pit for adobe construction materials. A newspaper article from 1881 reported that a Mr. Fuller had petitioned the city council to be allowed to make adobe from a portion of the “Old Cemetery” (AWC, 27 March 1881). There were also 14 other pits of unknown function and age (Pits 643, 7549, 7593, 7613, 7614, 7662, 7699, 7834, 7837, 7861, 7866, 10023, 10052, and 10054). Because much of this area was built on by 1923, it seems likely that these features represented activity prior to that year. Likewise, a cobble-filled drain (Feature 17136) was discovered beneath pipes that were probably associated with the Brewster Apartments. Once again this seems to indicate a date range prior to 1923, but this association remains unconfirmed, as the feature was located along the boundary between Lots 7 and 11, 60 feet from the nearest pre-1923 residential structure (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Drain 17136). Another feature of indeterminate association was Animal Burial 11404. This feature was located approximately two-thirds of the way north along the boundary between Lots 11 and 12 (see Figure 49); there was no obvious association between the buried canine and a particular residence. The dog burial was located entirely within Grave Pit 7597 and directly over the feet of the associated burial. No evidence was recovered to either associate or separate these two burials. A newspaper article dated 1883, however, reporting on the condition of the “old cemetery,” mentions an open burial vault with a “mouldering skeleton” and complains that “some vile wretch had thrown in a dead dog” (AWC, 18 February 1883). Certainly, a connection between this reference and the archaeological remains mentioned above remains tentative at best. Given the undisturbed nature of the canine burial and its vertical position within the grave, it is clear that the burial of the animal postdated the collapse of the coffin lid, but whether its placement over the grave was intentional remains unknown. Animal Burial 11404 was disturbed by a sewer trench installed during construction of the Brewster Apartments, dating the dog’s interment to pre-1923. Most of the features dating to 1923 or later were utility trenches. Two main systems, sewer and water, were laid down during the construction of the Brewster Apartments. However, two nonutility features from that time period also survived to data recovery. Building W represented the remains of an adobe shed that was constructed on the northwest corner of Lot 11, behind the Brewster Apartments (see Figure 15). Its presence was first recorded on the 1930 Sanborn fire insurance map. Although the extant foundation did not extend to the wall of Building J (see Chapter 10), photographs from the late 1930s and early 1940s confirm that it once did (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18 and 20]). It was this shed, with a concrete addition on the eastern end, which was used as a four-bay carport by Melrose Court starting in 1936. The second feature was a freestanding cinder-block wall that was likely constructed around the same time as the Brewster Apartments, along the north side of Lots 11, 12, and 13 (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Wall 7621). The wall abutted the southeast corner of Building N (see Chapter 9), indicating a construction date or a remodeling project after 1923 (later than the construction date of the Brewster Apartments). This wall can also be seen in the photographs mentioned above and was extant at the start of the archaeological project. Commercial History: Parking Lot In 1955, Melrose Court was razed and Miltenberg Street became E. Council Street. The apartments were demolished to provide parking for Durazzo’s Union 76 station, which was located across the street at 55 E. Council Street. This area remained a parking lot until it was mechanically stripped as part of this investigation. Several features related to this parking lot were encountered during data recovery. One (Building S) was a concrete slab that included a drain that connected to the city sewer system (see Figure 49). It is unclear what the exact function of these features was, but it is hypothesized that they were related to automobile maintenance performed by Durazzo’s. There were also 21 postholes representing the remains of a system of supports for three structures that provided covering for the parking lot (see Appendix H). These structures were extant at the beginning of the project. 211 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Biographies Goldbaum In 1889, Julius Goldbaum bought Lots 11, 12, and 13 of Block 252 from the City of Tucson. Two years later, he transferred ownership to his wife Jennie Goldbaum, who sold the property to Charles Rasmussen in 1892. These were probably speculative purchases related to Julius’s involvement with an insurance and investment firm, which advertised in Tucson under Rasmussen’s name (AHS n.d. o). Julius was born in 1861 in Denver, Colorado, to Marcus and Sarah Goldbaum, who were immigrants from Prussia and Bavaria, respectively (AHS n.d. o). He came to Tucson in 1880 and took a job as a clerk with the Zeckendorf Department Store. He married Jennie (possibly Jannie or Jennice—archival sources differ) Adele Konigshafer in 1885. Jennie was born in San Francisco around 1868. One son, Harold Julius Goldbaum, was born in Tucson in 1895 (ASBH BVS 1895). According to his birth certificate, which appears to have been written a number of years later, Harold was the second living child born to this family, but no record was found of this earlier birth. Julius’s occupation at this time was listed as merchant (ASBH BVS 1895). A birth certificate was found for an unnamed female, born in 1891 (this certificate was signed by Charles Shibell, an early owner of Block 255, Lot 1) (Bureau of the Census 1891), and another daughter, Sara Wanda Goldbaum, was born in 1901 (Goldbaum 1901). In 1886, the couple began a wholesale liquor and tobacco business which operated as the Julius Goldbaum Company. In 1891, in what may have been a development related to his investment firm, the City of Tucson awarded Julius a contract to grade the streets around the corner of Meyer Street and North Congress Avenue (ADC, 3 June 1891:4). The liquor store, meanwhile, had evolved into a grocery (AHS n.d. p). One late 1890s advertisement for the establishment, located at 182 W. Congress, promised fine liquors and a German delicatessen (AHS n.d. o), although soon after the store moved to “Durr’s Corner” at the intersection of Meyer and Congress (ADC, 4 May 1897; ADC, 27 May 1897:4). The business was incorporated in 1899, with Jennie Goldbaum on the board of directors. In the late 1890s, Julius acquired a restaurant called Café Richelieu, which he operated successfully even after his store began to fail in the early 1900s (AHS n.d. o). By 1903, the Julius Goldbaum Company was bankrupt, after which Julius continued to dabble in real estate and to run his café. He also invested in some mining ventures at that time, including the Happy Jack mine and possibly also the Verde Grande Copper Co. mine (AHS n.d. p). His personal correspondence indicates connections with the Congress Gold Mining Co., the Arizona Mining Co., and Mammoth-Collins Gold Mines, Ltd. Socially, Julius was a member of the Knights of Pythias (TCD 1901), and in 1905, he was chosen president of the South Side Improvement Association, a group formed to promote the property interests of people living at undisclosed locations on the south side of Tucson (AHS n.d. o). In 1908, however, the Goldbaums left Tucson for California (AHS n.d. p). Julius died in Alameda, California, in 1927. Commercial Enterprises Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station For a description of Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station, see Chapter 15. Architectural Descriptions 52/58 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure – South (Building C) This one-story, single-family dwelling was a Spanish Colonial-style vernacular building constructed between 1896 and 1899 (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 5 and 6]; see Figures 12 and 13) (Sanborn 1901–1919). 212 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Located on the northwest corner of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue, the residence was oriented east-west and was rectangular in plan view. Constructed of adobe, the building had a flat roof with at least one interior chimney. Between 1901 and 1904, a low-pitched wood-framed hipped roof was constructed. The roof had a wood-framed cornice and was clad with wood shingles. A wood-framed porch with a woodshingled roof was constructed on the north facade. The structure was gone by 1922. 78/80–82 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure – North (Building D) This one-story, single-family dwelling was vernacular in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 5, 6, and 18]; see Figures 12–14) (Sanborn 1901–1930). First constructed between 1896 and 1899, this residence was oriented east-west and rectangular in plan view. The main entrance likely faced Grossetta Avenue, where a small porch was located. Constructed of adobe, the building had a flat roof with at least one interior chimney. Between 1901 and 1904, a new low-pitched roof was constructed. It was clad in wood shingles, and the eaves were very narrow. A wood-framed porch with a wood-shingled roof was added to the south side of the building. Between 1919 and 1930, the house was divided on a north-south axis, creating a duplex. The woodframed porch was removed and a brick-framed porch was added to each dwelling on the south facade as a new front entrance. The porch roofs were clad in a composite material. The structure was gone by 1937. 36–54 Miltenberg Street, 76–78 Grossetta Avenue, Brewster Apartments/Melrose Court This multiple-family building was Spanish Eclectic in style and located on the northwest corner of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25, 28, and 29]; see Figures 14–17) (Sanborn 1930–1952). Constructed of brick between 1923 and 1924 (TCD 1923, 1924), this one-story, 12-unit apartment complex had rectangular units. The attached single-family units sat staggered two deep on the lot. From west to east, they sat one front, two back, two front, two back, two front, two back, and one front, with the most easterly two units facing Grossetta Avenue and the rest fronting Miltenberg Street. The roofs were flat with a 1-foot-high parapet and clad in a composite material. The rear units had one interior chimney extending beyond the roof on each building. Large picture windows graced the front facades. Entrance was provided through four arched, covered walkways, or porches, between the buildings, with two U-shaped on the south side and two rectangular on the east side. The complex was gone by 1957. Archaeological Feature Descriptions Animal Burial 11404 Feature 11404, an animal burial, was discovered during hand excavation of Grave Pit 7597, which was oriented east-west. It measured 30 by 27 inches and was 16.5 inches deep. It was excavated as an independent feature, within the Level 1 fill of Grave Pit 7597. The feature consisted of a cylindrical pit containing the articulated skeleton of an adult dog. The top layer of fill within the pit consisted of silty sand containing a few artifacts, including a nondiagnostic whole bottle as well as glass and metal fragments. Beneath this layer was one consisting of large stone cobbles and adobe chunks, also within a silty sand matrix. Under the rock layer was the skeleton of an adult dog, complete with collar; the body was on its side, with the head oriented to the north. The exposed remains were mapped with photogrammetry. Animal Burial 11404 intruded into the western end of Grave Pit 7597 and was positioned over the foot of the coffin within that feature, ending at the top of the coffin walls. Although it did not disturb the burial within, human remains were discovered during excavation. The presence of disarticulated human remains, along with the refuse from the top layer, might be explained by the fact that a sewer trench (Feature 656) intruded into the southern extents of both Features 11404 and 7597. The canid buried in Animal Burial 11404 (Figure 59) was an adult animal and largely complete. It was in better condition than other dog burials found in the project area and was also much smaller, indicating the presence of different breeds. For example, the reconstructed left tibia for the individual from Animal 213 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Burial 3285 (see Chapter 15), the only measureable long bone for this individual, was approximately 185 mm long. The left tibia of the dog from Animal Burial 11404, by contrast, was much less robust, measuring only 84.5 mm. Skull measurements indicate that the small dog had a middle- to long-shaped head (Alpak et al. 2004). It was thus not a short-faced breed like a Pekingese, nor was it an extremely long-faced dog. It lacked the distinctive skull morphology for either a bulldog or a Chihuahua, but the exact breed remains unknown. This animal burial also included a number of presumably intrusive animal bones. These consisted of 40 cattle-sized elements and two sheep-sized bones. The remains probably entered the burial feature when the pit was backfilled with refuse and/or house lot soils that contained refuse. Building W Building W (see Figure 49) was discovered and defined during mechanical stripping. It was oriented eastwest and open on its south side, with four interior divisions of equal size. Its extant archaeological remains collectively measured approximately 36 by 20 feet in plan view. The building foundation was constructed of poured concrete. Adobe bricks discovered atop sections of the foundation revealed the type of materials used in the superstructure. The north wall and three of the extant, north-south-oriented, interior walls (Foundation 7643) represented the original structure, and the northeast corner of the building (Foundation 7647) was identified as a later addition. The interior walls were about 17 feet long. All four interior spaces, or bays, contained the remains of concrete pads. However, only the west-central pad was complete (Feature 7650). It included a ramp and measured 17.5 feet long and 9 feet wide. The other three pads were fragmentary (Features 7651, 7652, and an unnumbered pad). A nearly 3-foot-square concrete pier (Feature 7653) was also discovered, at the south end of the third interior wall from the east. Building W either intruded on or superimposed a number of other features. The foundation superimposed three postholes (Features 7622, 7663, and 7664), as well as two pits (Features 7834 and 7837). Elements of the building also intruded upon the upper fill of seven graves (Grave Pits 7657, 7658, 7666, 7667, 7668, 7836, and 7839), but none of the associated burials was disturbed. Building C Building C (see Figure 58) was represented by a basement (Feature 669), walls (Features 386 and 675), and a stairwell (Features 670 and 10655), which collectively measured approximately 46 by 20 feet. Most of it was excavated mechanically. The basement (Feature 669) was approximately 45 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 3 feet deep. Two features were discovered inside. The first (which was not given a feature number) was a post mold located just north of Grave Pit 673, near the south wall of the basement. The second (Feature 386) represented an eastwest-oriented adobe foundation or wall that lined the northern edge of Basement 669 and was composed of three discontinuous segments. Feature 675 was a stone-and-mortar wall segment measuring 8 feet long and 1.5 feet wide, which probably represented the southern wall of Building C. This segment was discovered atop the caliche substrate at the level of the top of Basement 669, 1.5 feet south of the basement’s southern wall. The stairwell (Features 670 and 10655) was located at the northwest corner of the building and led into the basement. The north-south-oriented walls were constructed of adobe bricks and defined an area about 3 feet wide. The east wall (Feature 670) was identified independently, but the west wall was not identified until the excavation of Feature 10655, which was initially interpreted as a refuse pit. However, although it was at least partially filled with refuse, the surrounding walls and the shape of the feature, including its sloping floor, suggested that it was in fact a stairwell. It mirrored the location of Stairwell 649 leading into Basement 685 of Building D. Both buildings were located on Lot 13 of Block 252 and, as the lot history notes, were owned and probably built by the same individual. Basement 669 intruded into three extant graves, which included at least two burials. The disturbed burials included one in Grave Pit 668, which was missing its feet, and another in Grave Pit 674, which experienced a more significant disturbance. This disturbance was concentrated on the right (north) side of the rib cage, although the innominates and mandible were also moved. It appeared that some attempt had been made, at 214 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 the time of the disturbance, to rearticulate the disturbed elements, after which the burial was covered with fill. The third impacted grave was Grave Pit 673. No human or coffin remains were discovered in the fill of this feature, although there were two adobe bricks at the bottom of the pit. It is possible that the burial associated with Grave Pit 673 was removed prior to development of the parcel, or that it was removed during the excavation for Basement 669. The stairwell (Features 670 and 10655) also intruded into an empty grave shaft (Feature 10087). The floor of the stairwell extended a short distance below the grave, and the adobe wall sat on the grave’s caliche floor. The only other feature associated with the building described above was the 2-foot-wide Trench 681, which abutted the east wall of Basement 669 near the southeast corner. It was 7.5 feet long and oriented northwest-southeast. Its purpose remains unknown. Building D The footprint of Building D (see Figure 58) was defined by three sections of foundation (Features 639, 640, and 641), measuring 51 by 27 feet. In addition, Stairwell 649 led down to Basement 685. The features associated with Building D were first defined by mechanical stripping. Basement 685 was then mechanically excavated and the fill mechanically screened. The basement was oriented east-west and measured 51 by 20 feet. Stairwell 649 was divided into sections and excavated by hand in 10-cm, arbitrary levels. The fill was largely loose sand with varying quantities of ash, although there were layers with greater gravel and caliche content. A very thin layer of sand, encountered at the end of Level 3, had an orange cast suggesting possible oxidation. Broken rock that might have been affected by fire was discovered just under the oxidized layer. The feature was clearly filled with household refuse after abandonment. The upper fill, above the oxidation, had especially high amounts of refuse, including cut bone and large amounts of glass and metal, as well as shotgun shells and a rubber doormat. The fill below the oxidized layer had small inclusions consistent with household refuse, but overall the contents of the fill seemed to indicate accidental deposition. In all, three depositional events were identified: one before the stairwell was sealed (see below), one after it was sealed, and the refuse deposit above the oxidized layer. The east and west sides of the stairwell were composed of stone and adobe mortar, with sterile sand filling in the builder’s trench behind these walls. At the north end of the stairwell was a stone-and-mortar wall, which would have sealed off access to the basement. This wall abutted those of the stairwell and postdated their construction. Some fill ran beneath the northern wall and probably represented a depositional episode that predated it. The floor of the stairwell sloped steeply into the basement (approximately 51°). The remains of both treads and side supports for the ladderlike stairs were found during excavation and were represented by linear voids and a dark, dense, fill composed of insect castings. In situ nails were observed at the junctions of tread and support. The staircase was apparently composed of 1-by-6-inch boards. The extant stairwell measured about 5 by 4 feet, and it was nearly 4 feet deep. Only a single course of stone-and-mortar masonry remained to represent the north and west walls (Feature 639) of Building D. The wall sat on three courses of wet-laid adobe-brick foundation. The entire wall was situated on top of fill, including a large lens of ash and refuse that was probably imported to level the property prior to the construction of Building D (see Refuse Deposit 642). This fill was placed atop compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Feature 641 was a segment of an adobe wall, which was consistent and contiguous with the adobe courses of Feature 639. Feature 640 was an adobe foundation which represented the east wall as well as a portion of the south wall. Building D was disturbed by Feature 644, the drain pipe associated with Building S. The trench for this pipe impacted the upper fill of the stairwell. Building S Building S (see Figure 49) was composed of a 21-by-14-foot concrete slab (Feature 7594), which was oriented north-south; in the center there was a drain hole (Feature 7595). Drain 7595 was oriented to the long axis of the slab and was 4.5 feet long and 2 feet wide. Drain 7595 emptied into a metal drainage or sewer pipe (Feature 644) that connected to the city sewer. 215 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Drain 17136 Feature 17136 was a circular drain feature identified during mechanical stripping; the drain measured 39 by 43 inches. It intruded into the fill in the western half of Grave Pit 7868 but did not impact human remains. It was, in turn, disturbed by two trenches (Features 7854 and 7869). The feature was filled with large river cobbles and gravel in a yellowish brown silty loam matrix. It was surrounded by compact caliche, which was consistent with Natural Stratum II. The western wall appeared to have been blackened, but no other burning was evident. The drain was hand-excavated in two levels to a depth of 4 feet, after which it was mechanically excavated to a depth of approximately 6.5 feet. The cobble fill of the feature was consistent with the construction of a vertically oriented “French Drain” (Phillips 1994:84). The drain was likely used to dispose of rainwater. It is unclear if the feature was associated with a particular building. Posthole 7565 Feature 7565 was a circular posthole encountered during mechanical stripping. It measured 15 inches in diameter and was approximately 30 inches deep. The feature was fully excavated in 20-cm levels and was not divided into sections. The fill was chunky disturbed sandy loam, with a mottled brown color. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The bottom of the feature contained construction debris, and top levels contained ceramic, faunal bone, and glass beneath asphalt and concrete. Privy Pit 650 Feature 650 (Figure 60) was a privy pit encountered during mechanical stripping. The feature was an eastwest-oriented subrectangular pit, which was highly tapered from top to bottom. The top of the feature was very large and irregular and measured approximately 9 by 8 feet. At the bottom, a much smaller, regular rectangular shape was evident in plan view; it was oriented east-west and measured 7 by 5 feet. Because of the depth of the feature, it was excavated in two stages in order to address safety regulations. In total, the privy was just over 7 feet in depth. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche (Natural Stratum II) in the upper part of the feature but graded into loose gravelly sand (Natural Stratum III) near the bottom. The lower cultural strata (VII–X) of the feature represented the use of the feature as an active privy. Deposition at this level was more complicated than in the upper cultural strata and can be best described as a complex interleaving of several fill types. These included heavy ash, a loose sandy greenish fill, a compact claylike clean fill, and lenses of historical-period refuse in a crumbly brown matrix. Our interpretation is that these repeating patterns of fill represented depositional episodes, in which solid waste and heavy refuse filtered down through liquid or semiliquid suspension to a surface formed by a cap of ash or clean fill from the previous episode. Lenses of refuse observed in profile defined the earliest of these episodes. This refuse consisted primarily of small and medium-sized whole bottles that formed a bottle layer. Stratum IXb contained the largest concentration, with over 40 small and medium-sized bottles, many of which once held patent medicines. Fill texture was generally sandy gravel, with some areas of higher clay and loam concentration. The very lowest cultural stratum (Xb) was a thin, sandy clay loam with a reddish coloration, which may have represented a surface created by the activity involved in the original construction of the privy, as in a standing surface for the diggers. Above these cultural strata was a layer of calcium carbonate (Stratum IV), which may have represented a cap of lime or some other material used to seal the feature after its use as a privy had ended. The layer was fragmentary in the western half of the privy, possibly as a result of feature subsidence. Similarly, small pockets of sterile fill, especially those along the privy wall, may have represented collapse of the feature during its functional lifetime. Such collapses may also explain the large and irregular shape seen at the top of the feature. Above the calcium carbonate was Stratum III, a thick lens of ashy, charcoal-rich fill, followed by several layers of yellowish brown fine silty loam. These deposits probably represented a combination of natural fill and postabandonment dumping. The feature was undoubtedly filled and sealed by the time the Brewster Apartment complex was built over it in 1924. 216 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Refuse Deposit 642 Feature 642 was a large shallow refuse deposit with an irregular basin shape that measured roughly 30 by 30 feet and was at least 20 inches deep. It is possible that this feature was originally a borrow pit. The plan view shape was amorphous, partially due to the intrusion of Grossetta Avenue, on the east side of the feature; the southern edge may have been lost during mechanical stripping. Because of the size of the feature, a 1-by-2-m test pit was excavated along the northeastern edge to gather information about its subsurface morphology, prior to full excavation. The test pit revealed five layers, ending in a surrounding matrix of compact caliche, which was consistent with Natural Stratum II. The first and third levels of the feature were clean, tan fill, differentiated solely by the higher level of compaction in Level 1. This compaction was probably from the preparation of the ground surface when the western sidewalk along Grossetta Avenue was poured. Levels 1 and 3 were separated by Level 2, a blocky, white substance, possibly lime. Level 4 was an ashy layer of cultural fill that sat on top of a thin layer of culturally sterile fill (Level 5) directly above the underlying caliche. Level 4 was probably dumped onto a historicalperiod ground surface. The base of the deposit sloped from east to west. This was caused by the presence of Building D (see above), which was superimposed on Feature 642. It is likely that Feature 642 represented part of an attempt to level the property prior to the construction of Building D. Refuse Pit 7564 Feature 7564 was a northwest-southeast-oriented subrectangular refuse pit discovered during mechanical stripping. It measured 43 by 36 inches and was 14 inches deep. The pit was excavated into compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The walls of the pit were irregular but vertically oriented, and the floor of the feature was relatively level. Three cultural strata were identified. The bottom was compact and largely devoid of artifacts, although it did contain a small shovel blade. The top was loose with ash and a high concentration of artifacts. The two were divided by a layer of heavy charcoal. This charcoal layer, and the burning observed where it contacted the upper fill, indicated a single, in situ, thermal event such as the dumping of hot ash followed by refuse. The lack of oxidation in the surrounding soil strengthened the opinion that the event was not repeated or sustained. The upper cultural stratum contained sherds from three reconstructable historical ceramic vessels. The eastern corner of Refuse Pit 7564 was disturbed by Feature 10535, a trench filled with construction debris. Refuse Pit 7841 Feature 7841 was an east-west-oriented subrectangular refuse pit encountered during mechanical stripping. It measured 47 by 39 inches and was 42.5 inches deep. The vertical walls and level floor of the feature were excavated into Natural Stratum II, and the fill was gray sandy clay loam. The feature was originally identified as a grave, and so it was excavated in a single level without sections. The fill contained historical-period refuse, including a single large metal artifact, part of a child’s riding toy. Refuse Pit 7848 Feature 7848 was a north-south-oriented subrectangular refuse pit discovered during mechanical stripping. It measured 64 by 38 inches and was 12.5 inches deep. The vertical feature walls and slightly concave floor were excavated into substrates consistent with Natural Stratum II and Natural Stratum III. The feature fill was composed of three major cultural strata. The top layer was fine, yellow-brown, silty sand with minimal charcoal, ash, or artifacts. The middle layer was fine, dark brown, silty sand mottled with an abundance of charcoal and ash; it contained a large number of artifacts. The bottom layer was fine, brown, silty sand, generally lacking in ash, charcoal, or artifacts. The walls of the pit, especially along the southern edge, showed evidence of oxidation, implying in situ burning. This interpretation was supported by the presence of charred wood and other artifacts, including bricks. The feature intruded into the upper fill of two graves, the northeastern corner of Grave Pit 7847 and 217 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest the eastern end of Grave Pit 7845. The fill was 9.5 inches deeper in the southwestern corner, probably due to the ease of digging offered by the softer grave fill associated with Grave Pit 7847. Wall 7621 A free-standing wall (Feature 7621), measuring about 75 feet long, remained extant at the initiation of fieldwork. The cinder-block wall ran east-west along the northern edge of Lots 11, 12 and 13 and was built atop a large concrete footer. The wall was abutted by foundations (Features 7643 and 7647 of Building W, and Feature 17546 of Building O) and concrete slabs (Features 7622, 10452, and 12631). The western end of the wall originally abutted the southeast corner of Building N (see Chapter 9). The wall intruded on two graves (Grave Pits 7836 and 26510), but it did not disturb the associated burials. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Block 252, Lot 11 Block 252, Lot 11, yielded artifacts from two refuse deposits (Refuse Pits 7841 and 7848), and a dog burial (Fea­ture 11404). No artifacts were recovered in the smoking, weaponry, commerce, or invertebrate faunal categories. Refuse Pits 7841 and 7848 yielded a combined total of 83 ceramic sherds from 28 vessels. The single stratigraphic unit of Refuse Pit 7841 contained 64 percent (n = 53) of the ceramic sherds, representing 15 vessels, and Refuse Pit 7848 had 30 sherds (37 percent) from 12 vessels, also from a single stratigraphic unit. Half of the tableware ceramic sherds (n = 42) on this lot were made of semivitreous white-bodied earthenware. Hardpaste porcelain (n = 20) and vitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 18) were the other major ceramic body types on this lot. Nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware and stoneware sherds were identified in lower quantities. Ceramic tableware sherds in Refuse Pit 7848 were made from various body pastes and dated to the early twentieth century. The 12 vessel forms identified in this feature included 3 plates, 3 saucers, and 2 handled cups. Plate sherds in this feature consisted of 2 vitreous earthenware vessels with gilded rims and a polychrome floral decal. Plate sherds also included a hardpaste porcelain vessel with a polychrome floral decal and relief molding along the rim. The sherds from 3 saucers in this feature included a semivitreous vessel with relief molding, gilding, and a polychrome decaled rim, and an undecorated hotelware saucer. One of these vessels was made by the Homer Laughlin Company after 1912 (Lehner 1988:247). The third saucer was a hardpaste porcelain vessel that was part of the Austrian firm Limoges’ Victorian Porcelain line (1904–1918) and was similar to vessels recovered from other features in the project area (marks4ceramics.com). Although Refuse Pit 7841 contained the most ceramic sherds from this lot, this collection was mostly small fragments that could not be attributed to a specific vessel form. Of the 13 vessels represented in this feature, only a plate and a saucer were identified along with 2 miscellaneous teacup handles. The plate sherds in this collection were from a vitreous white-bodied earthenware vessel with polychrome decal and handpainted decoration. Sherds representing a semivitreous undecorated saucer were also identified. Unattributed sherds were from various hardpaste porcelain and semivitreous tableware vessels. A thin, colorless-glass shard from a tumbler was the only nonceramic tableware artifact recovered from Block 252, Lot 11. This item was excavated from Stratum I of Refuse Pit 7841. Refuse Pits 7841 and 7848 held vessels and fragments representing a minimum of 21 glass and metal food/beverage containers, including 14 bottles, 3 jars, and 4 cans. One bottle/jar closure was also represented. Most of the food/beverage containers from this lot were recovered from Refuse Pit 7848 (86 percent, n = 18). The food/beverage glass with identifiable technology was machine-made. Canning jars and cans were the most-prevalent food vessels, although contents could not be identified because of the fragmented nature of the collection. Refuse Pit 7841 yielded food and beverage containers consisting of bottles, jars, and cans. Bottle contents were unidentified with the exception of one beverage bottle. Residents were consuming some home-canned foods; one colorless canning jar embossed “[CO]HANSEY” was recovered. Cohansey jars dated between 1870 and 1900 (Toulouse 1969:69–71). No specific information is given in regards to colorless Cohansey 218 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 jars, but green, light blue, and aqua are noted in the literature. Most of the cans on this lot came from this feature; their specific food contents remain unidentified. One of the food cans was opened by a bayonet-style opener, which suggested that the contents could be poured. Hole-in-cap cans were also present. Although some of the artifacts recovered from this feature entered production as early as 1820, long before this lot was occupied, the food and beverage containers that were temporally diagnostic indicated deposition between the initial occupation of the lot and 1930. Refuse Pit 7848 contained food and beverage containers consisting of bottles, jars, a can, and a bottle/jar closure. This feature yielded the bulk of bottles from this lot, as well as the only bottle/jar closure. Contents remain unidentified for most of the bottles. Evidence of at least one soft drink and three unidentified beverage bottles were found. The soft drink was made by Clicquot Club, which produced a number of soft drinks such as ginger ale, root beer, and strawberry cream soda in bottles with this trademark from 1913 to 1965 (Industrial Coffee Company 2006; Periodical Publishers Association 1934:25). A crown cap was found in this feature. At least one Kerr Glass Manufacturing Co. canning jar was also present, as were sanitary cans. Food and beverage containers from this feature that were temporally diagnostic ranged from 1885 to 1965, indicating deposition between 1913 and abandonment of the feature. A total of 43 alcohol-bottle shards representing at least 13 bottles was recovered from the two unstratified refuse pits (Features 7841 and 7848) on Block 252, Lot 11. Feature 7841 yielded 12 percent of the bottle shards (n = 5), which came from a bottle of Saxon Whiskey and 2 wine or champagne bottles. At least 1 of the champagne bottles was hand tooled. Feature 7848 contained 38 bottle shards, approximately 89 percent of which (n = 34) were from 8 beer bottles. The remaining 4 fragments represented spirits (n = 3; MVC = 1) and a shard from a wine or champagne bottle. Although most shards indicated machine manufacture, one bottle had characteristics of hand manufacture. A beer bottle shard made by the Owens Bottle Company indicated that it was deposited after 1900 (Whitten 2009). Most of the clothing fasteners from this lot were recovered from Refuse Pit 7848. Undecorated sewthrough buttons were the most-prevalent clothing fastener, and they indicated the presence of both men’s and women’s clothing. No clothing fabric was recovered, but Refuse Pit 7848 yielded one snap. Refuse Pit 7841 had a cloth-covered shank button, which may have been used on a coat or vest, and a pants rivet. Refuse Pit 7848 yielded sew-through buttons and a snap. Stratum I of Refuse Pit 7841 produced six pieces of what might have been a single leather shoe. Five of the pieces were black leather fragments, and the sixth was metal and may have been a shank. Personal artifacts from the two refuse pits consisted of beauty/cosmetic items, health/hygiene items, and jewelry; most of these were health/hygiene items. Refuse Pit 7848 contained a minimum of two glass bottles, three glass jars, two glass thermometers, and four glass fountain syringes. Both bottles and one milkglass jar once held beauty/cosmetics products. Of note, there was an A. S. Hinds bottle produced by Illinois Glass Company between 1915 and 1929 (Whitten 2009). A milk-glass jar embossed “MELBA” was also present. This jar was an early example of a celebrity-endorsed product. The popularity of Nellie Melba, a world-renowned opera singer from the early twentieth century, resulted in the use of her name for a number of food dishes (e.g., Melba Toast and Peach Melba) and other products, including cosmetics. However, not all of the products were endorsed by the celebrity; the singer reportedly sued the Melba Manufacturing Company of Chicago, Illinois (White et al. 2009:45). Melba cosmetic products were advertised in 1927 (Mirken 1970:632–633) selling for 83 cents to $1.69 for perfume and 39 cents for face powder. Health/hygiene items were represented by at least two amber jars, the thermometers, and the glass fountain syringes. One of the amber jars was embossed “[M]ADE/VASEL[INE]/CHESE-BR[OUGH]/NE[W YORK]”, dating it to between 1880 and 1955 (Fike 2006:56). The company marketed petroleum jelly and other products, such as hair pomade. One of the glass thermometers was embossed with “B D SAPANAC + MIN Becton Dickinson & Co.” Refuse Pit 7841 contained fragments of a nonferrous straight pin with a stamped flowerlike object that may have been used as a hat or lapel pin and a nonferrous backing from a brooch. Medicine-related artifacts were recovered from the single stratigraphic layer of Refuse Pit 7848. A total of 57 bottles and fragments (MVC = 21) was recovered, and the feature had a high density of medicine-related artifacts of 5.84 per cubic foot (0.15/m³). All but 2 of the medicine-related artifacts in this feature were bottles, jars, or glass bottle caps. Most of these artifacts were machine-made and only 2 complete bottles had a hand-tooled finish. Dates on medicine-related glass from this feature came from complete bottles, fragments, and bottle caps from at least 12 vessels. These artifacts included the remains of three Mentholatum jars, an Illinois Glass Company “Lyric” oval prescription bottle (1928–1929), a bottle made by the Whitall Tatum Company (1857–1935), a Sharpe and Donne bottle (1860–1953), and six Wyeth bottles and glass bottle caps (1899–1931) (Fike 2006:83, 121, 180, 187; Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:118; Toulouse 1971:544). 219 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Mentholatum (1889–present) was a nationally distributed medicated effervescent ointment used to treat a variety of ailments (Fike 2006:83). This medicine continues to be produced today and is useful because of its blend of aromatic volatile oils that provide a cooling effect on the skin and aromatic properties that ease respiratory constriction. The Wyeth measured-dose cap, made of cobalt blue glass, was patented in 1899. It was embossed “THIS/ CUP/ HOLDS/ A HEAPING DESSERT SPOONFUL” and was also embossed with a number system that told patients when to take the next dose (Fike 2006:180). The cap was the closure to a cobalt blue bottle embossed “JOHN WYETH & BRO.” on a side panel. This bottle is noted to have contained an effervescent sodium phosphate useful as a laxative and cathartic (Fike 2006:187). Fragments of this type of dose cap and bottle were commonly recovered from postcemetery features across the Joint Courts Complex project area. Refuse Pit 7841 produced four fragments of a toy wagon or tricycle and seven artifacts from what was probably a single quadracycle (Figure 61): four spoked wheels, the seat frame, the steering rod, and the main frame and pedal mechanism (Figure 62). Communications-related artifacts from this block and lot consisted of a single piece of pencil lead from Refuse Pit 7848, and three pieces of pencil lead, the tip of a soapstone stylus, and several small fragments of paper, possibly from a newspaper or bottle label, from Refuse Pit 7841. A fragment from a broken radiator thermostat was the only transportation-related artifact recovered from Refuse Pit 7841. Refuse Pits 7841 and 7848 yielded 1,007 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts. Five percent (n = 53) of construction artifacts on this block were recovered from Refuse Pit 7848, which had an artifact density of 5.43 per cubic foot (0.15/m³). The construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts collection from Refuse Pit 7848 were mostly architectural items with a smaller number of hardware items. Forty-five percent of construction artifacts in this feature (n = 24) were wire nail fragments and 30 percent (n = 16) were window glass fragments. No complete nails were recovered from this feature. The remainder of construction artifacts in this feature (n = 13) included electrical wire fragments (n = 4), barbed wire fragments (n = 2), a piece of plumbing fixture (n = 1), a fragment from a Bakelite electrical panel, metal rods and hooks (n = 4), and a can or pail handle. Introduced in 1907, Bakelite plastic was widely used for electrical and telephone components (Miller et al. 2000). With 954 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts, Refuse Pit 7841 had the greatest diversity of these artifacts on Block 252, Lot 11. The feature yielded 95 percent of the construction and hardware artifacts on this lot at a density of 27.2 per cubic foot (0.76/m³). The construction and hardware artifact collection on this lot was dominated by wire nails and nail fragments (n = 217) and window glass fragments (n = 588). These two artifact types made up 84 percent of construction and hardware artifacts in this feature. Complete nails in this feature included at least 2 finishing nails measuring 6d and 8d, sizes which were commonly used in general construction. Paint can fragments (n = 70) were about 7 percent of construction and hardware artifacts. Fragments of a wooden-handled paintbrush were also recovered. The remaining construction artifacts (n = 78) included screen mesh (n = 15), chain fragments (n = 3), a bolt, washers (n = 2), a hinge, metal strap fragments (n = 49), washers (n = 2), a fragment of a metal rod, an electrical wire fragment, a piece of brick, and colorless opaque glass tiles (n = 3) designed as privacy glass. Refuse Pit 7841 produced a single metal ring from the base of a lightbulb, and Refuse Pit 7848 produced 2 metal base fragments from a lightbulb and 1 gray plastic fragment from an electrical plate. The two refuse pits also produced household artifacts consisting of hardware and other containers. Refuse Pit 7841 held a nonferrous curtain ring, and Refuse Pit 7848 contained four ferrous curtain-rod fragments with three nonferrous rings and a brass key stamped “CORBIN//CORBIN/CABINET LOCK/ COMPANY”. Corbin Cabinet Lock Co. produced specialty locks for trunks, cabinets, briefcases, and mailboxes (Corbin Russwin 2009) between 1882 and the 1960s when the company was merged with Russwin to form Corbin Russwin. Products from Corbin Cabinet Lock Co. were advertised in the Belknap Hardware & Manufacturing Company catalog (1955:1152–1153). A terracotta flowerpot was represented by one sherd from this feature. A single bone fragment from Refuse Pit 7841 was identified as pig, and only one bone was identified as sheep or goat; however, nearly 10 percent of the bone belonged to sheep-sized taxa, or sheep-sized artiodactyls. Of these, a few bones were identified as belonging to cervids or bovids. Most bone from sheep-sized taxa (including sheep/goat) was assigned to axial elements, including rib, vertebrae, and a cranial fragment. Bird bone included domestic chicken, chicken-sized taxa, quail, and bone from quail- or dove-sized taxa. Chicken and bone from chicken-sized taxa included a few bones from most of the postcranial body, from the furculum to the phalanges, or from the base of the neck to the toes. The rib of a quail- or dove-sized bird exhibited pathologic bone growth. One carnivore canine, probably from a domestic cat was also found. No 220 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 other bone from a cat-sized mammal was identified. A rabbit or hare femur was recovered from this pit, and a few bones from squirrel-sized mammals were also recovered, including a long bone with very rounded edges; it was apparently subjected to different postdepositional processes than the rest of the bone from this feature. This bone may have been swept up and discarded with other yard waste. The fauna from Refuse Pit 7848 followed the usual pattern of high proportions of mammal bones, but it had more sheep/goat-sized mammal bone than was often found (Table 32). Of the fauna recovered from this feature, one-quarter were from cattle, or similar-sized taxa, and over half were from sheep-sized mammals or sheep/goat. Only a few bones from birds, squirrel-sized, and rabbit-sized mammals were found. Nine plant species were identified from macrobotanical remains recovered from the two refuse deposits on Block 252, Lot 11 (see Table 6). These remains included construction materials, native plants, landscaping shrubs, and foods. Taxa identified on this lot were mostly utilitarian and native species, but a small number of food species were also present. Ponderosa pine and Douglas fir are woods commonly employed in construction and in making objects such as boxes. These trees are common throughout the western United States and Arizona and were the raw material for numerous large mills that made the lumber from these tree species a widely available product. The charred wood fragments on this block may represent discarded construction waste or objects that were later used as fuel. Mesquite on this lot was probably a native fuel source, but it has also been noted as a construction material for limited projects (Benson 1944:163–164). Native grasses and horse purslane were common plants on certain landforms and probably grew naturally on this lot. The remains of chinaberry plants are commonly used in landscaping in the Southwest and have been identified in numerous historical-period archaeological sites (see Appendix J). Food plants were comparatively less frequent on this block, and figs and grapes were the only species identified. Goathead nutlets were from an unwanted invasive weed that may have established itself on this lot. Block 252, Lot 12 The artifact collection from Block 252, Lot 12, did not include any artifacts from the following categories: glass/metal tablewares, personal items, medicine, recreation, smoking, communication, weaponry, transportation, household, and invertebrate faunal materials. Thirty-one ceramic sherds collected from Refuse Pit 7564 represented tableware vessels made from four different ceramic pastes. This feature had a single stratigraphic unit and ceramic sherds were from at least six tableware vessels, including three bowls, a saucer, and an unidentified vessel. Diagnostic sherds were made between 1851 and 1959, but this lot was occupied from 1889 to 1955. Bowl sherds in this feature included a hardpaste Chinese porcelain rice bowl with celadon glaze and hand-painted floral decoration. This bowl, called “Japanese T’zu” ware, was decorated with motifs that incorporated both under and overglaze elements, with raised white dots over the glaze. This ware type is common to late archaeological sites and are export wares intended for all markets. Commonly recovered vessel forms are plates and bowls (Mueller 1987:277, 291). A semivitreous white-bodied earthenware bowl with a banded rim was found; this was made by Mellor and Company (1893–1959) (Lehner 1988:107). A semivitreous white-bodied earthenware saucer made by the British firm Anthony Shaw and Company (1851–1900) was identified (marks4ceramics.com). An orange-bodied earthenware bowl glazed on the interior and exterior was also found. This bowl was most likely from northern Mexico. An animal burial (Feature 11404) and a refuse pit (Feature 7564) held a minimum of four food/beverage containers, including two bottles and two cans. Each feature had a single stratigraphic layer. Refuse Pit 7564 yielded the bulk of food and beverage containers from this lot, consisting of at least one bottle and two cans. At least one can in this feature contained baking powder. Its lid was stamped “FULL WE[IGHT]/1 LB./ROYA[L BAKING POWDER]/ABSOLU[TLY PURE]”. The Royal Baking Powder Co. began in 1866 (Stradley 2004). Royal Baking Powder was advertised in the 1897 Sears catalog (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]) in various sizes ranging in cost from 9 cents to 2 dollars. Other than this, contents remain unidentified for the remainder of bottles and cans. One sanitary can was found. Food and beverage containers from Refuse Pit 7564 that were temporally diagnostic indicated that the deposit could have been created as early as residential activity began on the lot and continued until the lot was developed for commercial use. In Animal Burial 11404, we found evidence of an olive-oil bottle. No temporally diagnostic food/beverage containers were found in Animal Burial 11404. Refuse Pit 7564 yielded a stoneware sherd from an off-white salt-glazed bottle that was shaped like a glass English export ale bottle. The export beer bottle shape was commonly used since the 1870s prior to 221 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest the proliferation of the crown finish (Lindsey 2009). A complete beer bottle was also found in the refuse pit, and a champagne or wine bottle shard was found in the animal burial. The hand-finished beer bottle was made by the Streator Bottle Glass Company between 1881 and 1905 (Toulouse 1971:461), although it was most likely deposited after 1889, the year this lot was available for development. Refuse Pit 7564 yielded complete and fragmented clothing fasteners; undecorated buttons were the most-prevalent type. Both men’s and women’s clothing were indicated. No clothing fabric was recovered. Button sizes indicated use on a shirt, a dress, or vest. One large cinch buckle may have been used for a belt. The refuse pit also contained six fragments representing a minimum of one leather shoe; original color could not be determined. Twenty construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered from Refuse Pit 7564. Fifteen of these artifacts (75 percent) were fragments of common wire nails. A hinge, a window glass fragment, and 2 fragments of a metal rod were the remaining construction artifacts from this feature. The blade from a spade was also recovered from this feature, as were 2 colorless lightbulb glass shards and 40 shards of colorless glass from a lamp chimney. The fauna recovered from Refuse Pit 7564 included both mammal and bird bone. Bird bone consisted of a radius of a large member of the duck, goose, or swan family and a radius and vertebra from a chicken-sized bird. None was burned. Eggshell fragments were also recovered. Nearly three-quarters of the bone recovered represented cow, or similar-sized taxa, and only 10 percent was assigned to sheep-sized taxa (Table 33). The remainder of the bone consisted of a single blackened vertebral fragment from a rabbit-sized mammal and indeterminate mammal bone. Sheep/goat-sized bone consisted of rib or vertebral spine fragments, innominates, and fragments unidentified to element. Cow bone, and bone from cow-sized taxa included axial and appendicular elements, but no head, lower leg, or foot bones were identified. Refuse Pit 7564 contained the remains of at least nine plant species, five of which were native (see Table 6). Mesquite, horse purslane, indeterminate chenopodium-amaranth seeds, and indeterminate native grasses were all historically present on this lot. All are native to the Tucson Basin. These plants had ethnographic value as food, but they were most likely not consumed in this household. Mesquite was a readily available fuel source used into the twentieth century. Identified food plants were barley, wheat, and corn— grain staples that remain important in the present. The source of an oak nutshell fragment in this feature was unknown. Block 252, Lot 13 The only functional artifact category absent from Block 252, Lot 13 was that of commerce. Five features on Lot 13 yielded a total of 334 ceramic sherds from at least 187 vessels. The features included a refuse deposit (Feature 642), two stairwells (Features 649 and 10655), a basement (Feature 685), and a privy pit (Feature 650). Diagnostic sherds on this lot were made between 1879 and 1959. Approximately 51 percent (n = 171) of sherds and 53 percent of vessels (MVC = 100) were recovered from Basement 685. The remaining 48 percent of sherds were divided between Stairwell 649 (n = 68), Privy Pit 650 (n = 40), Stairwell 10655 (n = 35), and Refuse Deposit 642 (n = 20). Approximately 40 percent (n = 138) of the sherds on this lot were from unidentified vessel forms, but the remaining sherds were attributed to various tableware, utilitarian, and decorative items. A total of 20 ceramic fragments representing 14 vessels was excavated from Refuse Deposit 642. This feature was divided into five stratigraphic units, but ceramics were only recovered from two: Strata I and IV. Although Stratum IV contained the most sherds (n = 17), 3 sherds from 2 vessels were collected from Stratum I. Except for a stoneware bottle, all ceramics in this feature were fragments of tableware items made from semivitreous white-bodied earthenware. Both stoneware bottles contained alcoholic beverages and are discussed below in the section on alcohol bottles. The 14 vessels in this collection were primarily from unidentified vessel forms, which made up 55 percent (n = 11) of sherds and 57 percent (MVC = 8) of individual vessels in Refuse Deposit 642. Identified forms included a handled cup, a plate, and a saucer, all of which were recovered from Stratum IV. No makers’ marks were found on artifacts from this feature. The cup was from an undecorated semivitreous rim sherd. Sherds from both the saucer and plate in this feature were also semivitreous white-bodied earthenware vessels. The saucer sherds had a green-banded decoration on the rim. Stairwells 649 and 10655 contained a combined total of 103 ceramic sherds, 68 of which were collected from Stairwell 649. Sherds in Stairwell 649 were recovered from 9 of the 11 stratigraphic units in this feature. Most strata in this feature contained between 1 and 12 sherds, but Level 5 yielded 37 sherds, which was 222 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 54 percent of all ceramics in this feature. Most of the sherds in this feature (n = 53; MVC = 17) were from unidentified vessel forms. Identified vessels (MVC = 5) included 2 handled cups, and plates and saucers. One of the handled cups was a nonvitreous, white-bodied earthenware vessel with a polychrome floral decal, and the other was an undecorated hardpaste porcelain vessel. Sherds from the 2 plates included a hardpaste porcelain vessel with a floral decal and an undecorated semivitreous vessel. One nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware saucer with a scalloped rim made by the West End Pottery Company of Ohio (1893–1938) (Lehner 1988:512) was also identified by sherds recovered in Stairwell 649. Stairwell 10655 contained the remains of 21 ceramic vessels, but 15 of these were unidentified forms. The fragments of 2 bowls, 2 cups, and 2 plates in this feature were recovered from a single stratigraphic unit. Bowl sherds in this collection included a relief-molded, semivitreous vessel and a large stoneware mixing bowl with banded decoration and white glaze. Both sherds from handled cups in this feature represented undecorated semivitreous vessels. Sherds from plates in Stairwell 10655 were made from hardpaste porcelain. Privy Pit 650 comprised 10 stratigraphic units, and a total of 40 sherds from 31 vessels were collected. Ceramics were identified in 5 stratigraphic units, but they were concentrated in 3 strata. Strata IIIa–c (n = 12), VI (n = 13), and VIIa–g (n = 8) yielded the most ceramic sherds. Among the 31 individual vessels in this feature, only 8 were unidentified forms. The remaining vessels were different tableware items made from a variety of ceramic pastes. The 22 identified vessels in Privy Pit 650 included 7 plates, 6 handled cups, 4 bowls, 3 saucers, a platter, and a condiment bowl. Most of the sherds (MVC = 19) were from semivitreous white-bodied earthenware vessels, although sherds from nonvitreous earthenware (MVC = 2), hardpaste porcelain, vitreous earthenware, and stoneware vessels (MVC = 1 each) were also recovered. Plate sherds in this feature were semivitreous or vitreous earthenware and were decorated with gilding and relief molding. The remains of a semivitreous plate made by the Wheeling Pottery Company of West Virginia (1888–1893) and a semivitreous plate made by the British firm Wedgwood and Company (1890–1906) were identified in this feature (Godden 1964:655; Lehner 1988:517). Cup sherds were hardpaste porcelain or semivitreous earthenware. Three had transfer-printed, enameled, or relief-molded decoration. Fragments of one cup were made by George S. Harker and Company (1879–1890) (Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:40). Bowl sherds were also hard paste or semivitreous and were decorated with transfer printing, decals, and relief molding. A nearly complete Chinese celadon rice bowl with a floral motif enameled decoration was identified in this feature (Figure 63). Saucer sherds in this collection were all semivitreous earthenware, and one saucer had a flow-blue decoration. A hotelware semivitreous platter, in sherds, was made by the Homer Laughlin Company around 1900 (Lehner 1988:247). Basement 685 yielded the most diverse collection with the greatest quantity of ceramic artifacts on Block 252, Lot 13. This feature contained a total of 171 sherds from 100 vessels and only 38 sherds (MVC = 33) were from unidentified vessel forms. Basement 685 only had a single stratigraphic unit, thus all ceramic artifacts were from the same vertical context. Ceramic sherds were mostly semivitreous whitebodied earthenware (n = 44; MVC = 29), nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 37; MVC = 31), and hardpaste porcelain (n = 36; MVC = 21). Bone china (n = 23; MVC = 3) and vitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 22; MVC = 8) sherds were also well-represented ceramic types in this feature. Other ceramics included stoneware (n = 4; MVC = 3), coarse earthenware (n = 3; MVC = 3), the parian foot ring from an unglazed saucer (n = 1; MVC = 1), and yellowware (n = 1; MVC = 1). Relief molding was the most-prevalent decoration technique, and banding, decals, and transfer printing were next in prevalence; 37 sherds from 20 vessels were undecorated. Tableware and utilitarian kitchen wares were the most-common ceramic vessel types in Basement 685, but a small number of decorative vessels were also identified. All identified vessels were made in Mexico or the United States during the twentieth century. Sherds from plates (MVC = 22), cups (MVC = 14), and saucers (MVC = 12) were the most-common vessel types. Plate and saucer sherds were primarily from semivitreous and nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware and hardpaste porcelain vessels. Relief molding and decals were the most-prevalent decorative techniques on these vessels. Makers’ marks included the remains of 2 saucers made by the Homer Laughlin Company, one of which was from the “Republic” shape (1917–1959) (Page et al. 2003:82). This pattern was available in over 65 vessel forms typically decorated with polychrome floral designs, although gilt transfers were also used (Jasper 1993:30). A 112-piece set sold for $23.98 in 1920, and a 95-piece set cost $17.95 in 1941 (Jasper 1993:30). Fragments of another saucer and 2 hotelware plates were also identified. Nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware cup sherds were most common in this feature, but bone china (MVC = 3), hardpaste porcelain (MVC = 2), and semivitreous earthenware (MVC = 2) cups were also present. Cup sherds had a variety of decorative techniques, including relief molding, enameling, hand painting, and decals. The remains of bowls were primarily from nonvitreous earthenware vessels that exhibited transfer-printed, decals, or hand-painted decoration 223 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest techniques. One bowl in this collection was a Mexican redware utilitarian bowl with green glaze. Another bowl was from the “Derwood” line by W. S. George Pottery Company (late 1930s–1940s) (Lehner 1988:162– 163). Tableware and utilitarian ceramics also included sherds from a salt-glazed stoneware jar with a lid and a nonvitreous earthenware pitcher. A collection of Native American ceramic sherds (n = 128) was recovered from Features 642, 649, 650, 685, 7564, and 10655 on Block 252, lots 11, 12, and 13. About 87 percent (n = 111) of these artifacts were Papago Red sherds. Although most fragments (n = 72) were from unidentified vessel forms, 55 sherds could be attributed to ollas. Four features (Stairwells 649 and 10655, Basement 685, and Privy Pit 650) contained a total of 53 (MVC = 43) nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts. When considered together, Privy Pit 650 (n = 18) and Basement 685 (n = 23) yielded 77 percent of these artifacts. Stairwell 10655 contained the fewest nonceramic tableware artifacts on this lot: 2 shards from a pressed-glass tumbler with a vertical pattern, a shard from another pressed-glass decorative dish lid, and a metal knife handle. Stairwell 649 had 11 stratigraphic units and 7 (MVC = 5) nonceramic tableware artifacts were recovered from Levels 6, 7, 8, and 9. In sum, this feature had the remains of 2 colorless-glass tumblers decorated with etched parallel lines, a shard from a decorative glass decanter, part of a bone knife handle, and a complete cake knife (Figure 64). Privy Pit 650 was composed of 10 stratigraphic units. Six of those strata contained nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts (n = 18), all of which were glass shards. About 72 percent (n = 13) of these artifacts were located in Strata V and VI. Shards from at least 9 drinking glasses were identified in this feature. These vessels were mostly pressed-glass tumblers with vertical ribbed decoration, but 1 tumbler had a decorative pattern of diamonds. Shards from 2 stemware vessels, a pressed-glass cup with diamond pattern decoration, and a small cordial glass were also recovered. A shard from a measuring cup with etched measurement lines and enameled teaspoon and tablespoon numeral marks was also identified, and a complete colorless-glass salt or pepper shaker with a press-molded checkerboard decorative motif was recovered from Stratum VIII. Basement 685 was sampled, and yielded 43 percent of the nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts on this lot (n = 23; MVC = 21). Approximately 61 percent of these tableware artifacts were from at least 12 tumblers. Eight of the tumblers were manufactured from colorless glass, 3 of which were pressed glass with vertical ribbed decoration and the other 2 tumblers had an etched design. Four of the 8 tumblers were suncolored amethyst glass, which can be found in contexts dating between 1876 and 1933 (Lockhart 2004:2). Sun-colored amethyst tumblers in this feature were decorated with pressed vertical ribbing or a starburst. Other glass-tableware artifacts included the handles to a carnival glass pitcher and a decorative bowl. Carnival glass is an iridescent variety of press-molded glass that was often used in decorative vessels and was popular between 1905 and 1930 (Edwards 1996). Metal culinary artifacts included fragments from a butcher’s chainmail glove, a church-key bottle opener, a cooking pan handle, a butter knife, and the handle of another knife. Church-key bottle openers were most commonly used between 1935 and 1962 (Polk 2006). A partial knife handle made of bone and a semispherical, vesicular basalt mortar were the other tableware and culinary items identified in this feature. Similar small mortars were used during historical times to grind herbs, medicines, or pigment; however, the item may have been a manuport from a nearby prehistoric context (Figure 65). Stairwells 10655 and 649, Refuse Deposit 642, Privy Pit 650, and Basement 685 yielded a minimum of 69 food/beverage containers, including 51 bottles, 6 jars, and 12 cans. Thirty-one bottle/jar closures were also recovered. With the exception of the privy pit, food/beverage containers were found in unstratified features or within a single stratigraphic layer. The bulk of food/beverage containers and bottle/jar closures came from Basement 685 (74 percent, n = 51). The food/beverage glass with identifiable technology from this lot was primarily machine-made. Stairwell 10655 yielded at least 1 can and 3 bottle closures from a single stratigraphic layer. Contents remain unidentified for cans, and bottle closures were all crown caps. One hole-incap can was found. The food and beverage containers from this feature that were temporally diagnostic did not yield a concise range of deposition; they indicated manufacture between 1820 and 1930. A minimum of 1 bottle (Level 1) and 1 canning jar (Level 10), for which original contents remain unidentified, were recovered from Stairwell 649. Additionally, 4 crown caps were recovered from the upper to middle levels of the feature. Temporally diagnostic food/beverage-related artifacts from this feature indicated manufacture after 1895. One of the five stratigraphic levels (Stratum IV) of Refuse Deposit 642 yielded a minimum of 1 bottle for which original contents remain unidentified. A crown cap was recovered from Stratum I. Temporally diagnostic food/beverage-related artifacts from this feature indicated manufacture after 1895; it was not possible to determine dates of deposition based on this artifact category. Seven of the 10 stratigraphic layers of Privy Pit 650 yielded complete and fragmented bottles. Contents remain unidentified for most of the bottles, which were found only in the lower stratigraphic layers. Fragments 224 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 of a root beer extract bottle of the Charles E. Hires Co. dated between 1869 and 1937 (Zumwalt 1980:240). According to company information (Dr. Pepper Snapple Group 2010), Charles E. Hires introduced his root beer at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. Initially, the beverage required equipment and yeast for home brewing, but after 1884, Hires developed an extract that required only reconstitution in the home. Hires’ root beer extract was advertised for 15 cents a bottle in the 1897 Sears catalog (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]). Jars were only observed in the middle stratigraphic layers and primarily had unidentified contents. At least one Dunkley Celery Co. jar once contained processed celery and was made after 1896; the company remained in business until at least 1972 (Zumwalt 1980:125). Evidence of home canning was indicated by three colorless-glass finishes with continuously threaded closures and at least three colorless-glass lid liners. Jar closures were found in the middle to lower stratigraphic layers. Most of the cans on this lot were recovered from this feature; their specific food contents remain unidentified. Sanitary cans were found in the middle and bottom stratigraphic layers, and at least one hole-in-cap can was identified from the middle stratigraphic layer (Stratum VI). Evidence of at least one rectangular sanitary can likely held meat and was key-opened. Temporally diagnostic food/beverage-related artifacts from this feature indicated manufacture between 1820 and 1937; it was not possible to refine the dates of deposition from this artifact category. The fill of Basement 685 yielded a variety of complete and fragmented bottles. At least five soft drink, eight unidentified beverage, five milk, eight condiment, and seven unidentified food bottles were represented by whole vessels and shards. A Clicquot Club soda bottle dated from 1913 to 1965 (Industrial Coffee Company 2006; Periodical Publishers Association 1934:25). The American Bottle Company and the Illinois Glass Co. made two of the unidentified beverage vessels between 1905 and 1929 and from 1915 to 1929 (Whitten 2009). A Heinz ketchup bottle was manufactured by the Owens Illinois Glass Corporation between 1911 and 1929 (Zumwalt 1980:225). The Thatcher Manufacturing Co. made one of the milk bottles in 1921 (Lockhart et al. 2007). At least four crown caps were also recovered. Some consumption of home-canned foods took place in the household as evidenced by one jar made by Ball as early as 1890 (Toulouse 1969:28), two glass lid liners, and a metal screw cap. Contents remain unidentified for cans from this feature. One sanitary can was present. Temporally diagnostic food/beverage-related artifacts from this feature indicated manufacture between 1905 and 1965; it was not possible to refine dates of deposition for this feature based on this artifact category. A total of 318 alcohol-bottle shards, representing at least 106 vessels, was recovered from Stairwells 649 and 10655, Refuse Deposit 642, Privy Pit 650, and Basement 685. Approximately 69 percent of alcohol bottles and shards on this lot (n = 219; MVC = 75) were collected from Basement 685. Former residents of this property had a clear preference for wine and champagne; 74 percent of all bottle shards (n = 235; MVC = 53) were from bottles containing those beverages. Thirteen percent of all shards (n = 42; MVC = 24) were from beer bottles or distilled spirits (n = 41; MVC = 29). Alcohol bottles from this lot were made between 1873 and 1954. Datable bottles were identified in all stratigraphic layers of the privy pit, indicating that deposition in the privy could have begun as early as 1887 and continued until at least until 1955 when the residence on this lot was demolished. The basement contained datable shards from bottles made between 1883 and 1954. Sixteen alcohol-bottle shards from at least 4 vessels were recovered from the two stairwells, although only a single wine or champagne bottle shard was recovered from Stairwell 649. Stairwell 10655 contained 15 alcohol-bottle shards (MVC = 3), 11 of which (73 percent) were from an amber beer bottle with a crown finish. The remaining shards (n = 4; MVC = 2) were from wine or champagne bottles. No products or makers’ marks were present on shards from the stairwells. Refuse Deposit 642 was composed of five stratigraphic units, and a total of 18 alcohol-bottle shards from at least 7 vessels were recovered from only four of those strata. No alcohol-bottle shards were identified in Stratum V, the lowest stratigraphic unit. Eighty-nine percent (n = 16; MVC = 5) of shards were recovered from Strata III and IV; 66 percent (n = 12; MVC = 3) of those were from Stratum IV. Throughout the feature, 11 shards (61 percent) represented at least 4 wine or champagne bottles, and 33 percent of shards (n = 6; MVC = 2) were from beer bottles. A single shard from a distilled-spirits bottle was recovered from this feature. Most shards did not have manufacturing characteristics, but 6 shards were indicative of hand manufacturing. Machine manufacturing traits were not identified in this feature, and no specific products or makers’ marks were observed. Twenty percent (n = 65; MVC = 20) of the alcohol-bottle remains on this lot were recovered from Privy Pit 650. This feature comprised 10 stratigraphic units, and 5 of those strata yielded alcohol-bottle remains. Approximately 71 percent (n = 46) of alcohol-bottle shards in this feature came from at least 7 vessels in Stratum VIIIa–e, which had an artifact density of 1.5 per cubic foot (0.04/m³). This compared with an overall density of 0.41 per cubic foot (0.01/m³) for alcohol-bottle shards. Wine or champagne bottle shards from 225 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 10 vessels made up 72 percent (n = 47) of alcohol-bottle shards in this feature. Twenty-two percent of bottle shards (n = 14; MVC = 8) were from distilled spirits. Only 4 beer bottle shards (MVC = 2) were recovered, 3 of which came from Stratum V. Bottle manufacturers’ marks and product embossing on vessels from the privy pit indicated that artifacts in this feature may have been deposited any time after 1887. The remains of two machine-manufactured spirits bottles were made by the Illinois Glass Company. This company operated between 1873 and 1929 (Toulouse 1971:264–268). Two fragments of a machine-made whiskey bottle were from the Taylor and Williams Incorporated Whiskey Company, a wholesale liquor firm in Louisville, Kentucky, that operated between 1881 and 1910 (Bales 2008:1; Wilson and Wilson 1968:141) (Figure 66). Fragments of a hand-finished bottle that once contained Monogram Pure Rye Whiskey dated between 1887 and 1916 (Wilson and Wilson 1968:106). This bottle was most likely made after the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 that required manufacturers to list the ingredients in their products; many products were marked “pure” after the passage of this legislation. Basement 685 yielded the largest percentage of alcohol-related artifacts from Block 252, Lot 13, with 69 percent (n = 219; MVC = 75) of the lot’s collection of alcohol vessels. Approximately 79 percent of alcohol shards in the feature (n = 172) were from about 36 wine or champagne bottles. Manufacturing techniques were unidentified for 95 percent of these shards (n = 164), but about 4 percent (n = 7) had characteristics of hand manufacture. Shards from only 1 wine or champagne bottle fragment were machine-made. No makers’ marks were identified on wine or champagne bottles. Beer and distilled-spirits bottles made up about 21 percent of alcohol-related artifacts collected from Basement 685 (n = 47; MVC = 39), but it contained most of the datable alcohol bottles. Shards from at least 20 distilled-spirits bottles made up 12 percent (n = 26) of alcohol bottles in this feature. Spirits bottle shards exhibiting characteristics of hand-finishing and machine manufacture were equally prevalent, yet most fragments did not have any manufacturing characteristics. Four datable spirits bottles and shards were observed. Shards representing bottles made by the North Baltimore Glass Works (1888–1895) and the Frederick Heitz Glass Works (1883–1896) were some of the oldest artifacts collected in this feature (Whitten 2009). Shards from machine-manufactured bottles made by the W. J. Latchford Glass Company (1925–1938) and Owens-Illinois (ca.1929–1954) indicated deposition in this feature that continued into the twentieth century. Beer bottle glass made up approximately 9 percent (n = 21) of the alcohol glass in this feature. Thirty-eight percent of beer bottle glass shards (n = 8) were hand-finished. Beer bottle manufacturers were represented by shards from 3 bottles made by the American Bottle Company that operated between 1905 and 1929 and shards from a bottle made between 1881 and 1905 by the Streator Bottle Glass Company (Toulouse 1971:461; Whitten 2009). Most of the clothing fasteners from this lot were recovered from Privy Pit 650; this privy pit also provided the greatest variety of clothing fasteners. Undecorated buttons were the most-prevalent clothing fastener in the feature, and both men’s and women’s clothing were indicated. Clothing fabric was only recovered from Privy Pit 650. Five of the 10 stratigraphic layers in Privy Pit 650 yielded buttons, safety pins, rivets, hook and eyes, straight pins, and a collar/cuff stud. This feature contained the widest variety of clothing fasteners in this lot. The bulk of the sample from this feature was recovered from Stratum III a–c. Buttons present were sew-through, shank through back plate, and unidentified shank. Buttons were distributed among the middle to low stratigraphic layers. Sizes suggested use on lingerie and shirts, dresses and/or vests, pants, suspenders, and coats. There was at least one decorative button, a shank through back plate with scrollwork border and a cupidlike figure in relief (Figure 67). The size suggested it may have been used on a ladies’ coat. At least two fragmented safety pins (Stratum IIa–b and V) of unknown size were present. Rivets and straight pins were recovered from Stratum IIIa–c. Hooks and eyes were only present in Stratum V and may have been used on dresses and ladies’ undergarments. Fabric of an unknown type and finely woven cotton were found in Stratum II. Stairwell 10655 produced sew-through buttons, a small buckle, and the cloth cover of a snap or button. Button sizes suggested use on lingerie, shirts, dresses, vests, pants or a coat, and suspenders. Garter/hosiery hardware was also recovered. Sew-through buttons of varying sizes from Stairwell 649 indicated use on shirts. Refuse Deposit 642 (Stratum IV) yielded sew-through buttons and a nonferrous fly button. Sizes suggested use on shirts, dresses, or vests. The nonferrous fly button may have been used on denim pants or overalls. Basement 685 yielded sew-through, loop shank, and unidentified shank buttons and small brass buckles. Button sizes indicated use on shirts, pants, and coats. The small brass buckles likely represented garter/hosiery hardware. Fragments from at least three different shoes were recovered from each of three features in Block 252, Lot 13. A sample of Basement 685 produced part of a rubber heel, likely from a man’s shoe or boot. Another rubber heel fragment was recovered from Level 2 of Stairwell 649. Finally, over 100 small leather shoe fragments representing at least one shoe were recovered from Strata V, 226 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 VI, VIIa–g, and IXa–b of Privy Pit 650. Four of the leather fragments were black in color, but the color of the rest could not be determined. The features from Block 252, Lot 13, all held personal artifacts consisting of heath/hygiene items, beauty/ cosmetic items, jewelry, and other items. The bulk of personal items came from Privy Pit 650 and they were health/hygiene-related. Stairwell 10655 contained red rubber tubing fragments used for a hot-water bottle in conjunction with fountain syringes for douching/enemas; similar tubing was advertised in the 1906 Sears catalog selling for 52 cents to $1.77 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:844). One frosted colorless-glass and one nonferrous-metal bead were recovered, as well as a pocket knife with a bone handle, a bone handle that may have been used for a toothbrush or hairbrush, and an eyeglass lens. Three of the 11 stratigraphic layers of Stairwell 649 contained health/hygiene items and a medal. Recovered from Level 3, the face of the medal (Figure 68) depicted a mounted cowboy roping a steer, and the back was imprinted “CLAY /ROBINSON/AND/COMPANY/THE[. . .]CO. CHICAGO”. This item apparently was an award; the company was formed in 1886 and was the largest livestock commission firm in the nation (True 1925:77). “The stock would be shipped to the stockyard and consigned to the commission agent who would then sell the cattle, sheep, etc. to the highest bidder and remit the proceeds as instructed by the stockgrower” (Dobson 2004:n.p.). Health/hygiene items were recovered from upper and lower stratigraphic layers and included a bone toothbrush, a small circular metal container with an external friction press-fit cap, and a black nit/lice comb of unidentified plastic. Noël Hume (1970:174–175) described nit/lice combs as double-edged, explaining “. . . The double-edged comb continued to be used by the poor until the very late nineteenth century, generally in bone and later (c.1860) in vulcanite, and was then often known as a lice comb.” Nit/lice combs were advertised as “Fine Tooth Combs” (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1902:935) and cost between 4 and 24 cents in 1902. In 1906, toothbrushes were advertised in the Sears catalog (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:855) at prices ranging from 3 to 21 cents. Stratum IV of Refuse Deposit 642 yielded a fragment of a hard-rubber nib fountain syringe. Seven of the 10 stratigraphic layers, primarily lower layers, of Privy Pit 650 contained accessories, perfume and lotions, and hygienic items. Bone and metal hairpins were recovered. Stratum IXa–b yielded a fragment of a dangling wire-loop pierced earring with two black glass beads. An eyeglass lens, a compact mirror, and a pocket knife with a bone handle were also recovered. Of note, at least six perfume bottles were found. One was embossed “THE CROWN/PERFUMERY/COMPANY/LONDON” (1872–1939) (Doctor Basenotes, 1999–2009), and another, “L. LEGRAND PARIS”. La Compagnie des Cristalleries de Baccarat manufactured perfume bottles for many companies from the late 1800s until at least the midtwentieth century (Shuman 2003:17); bottles were made for Legrand between 1912 and 1925 and perhaps longer (Cleopatra’s Boudoir 2009). Another perfume bottle had an intact glass stopper and was embossed “PATENTED MAY 15th 1894” on the body and “LUNBORO N Y” on the base. A colorless perfume-bottle stopper was also recovered. The vial was embossed “RICKSECKER” and may have been a perfume sample (Fike 2006:178). Inconclusive data drawn from internet auction sites suggested that Theodore Ricksecker produced perfume from at least 1884 to 1922. Lotion bottles (MVC = 3) included one from A. S. Hinds dating between 1870 and ca. 1930 (Toulouse 1971:54) and a bottle embossed “PALMER”. Solon Palmer ran a family operation producing lotions and perfumes until the 1960s or 1970s (Fike 2006:139). Also recovered was a bottle embossed “CORNELL’S/BENZOIN LOTION”. Cornell’s Benzoin Lotion was advertised for “softening and whitening the hands, and preventing that dry rough feeling . . . “ (Students’ Association of Vassar College 1892). Specific original jar (MVC = 2) contents (one was a milk-glass jar) remain unidentified. Additional health and beauty aids included at least two shoe-polish bottles, one vial, an eyedropper, at least two bone toothbrushes, a bone hairbrush, black unidentified plastic dressing comb fragments, rubber tubing fragments, a black unidentified plastic fountain syringe, and metal hot-water bottle valve/clamps. One shoe-polish bottle had paper label fragments that read: “FRANK/MILLER’S/CROWN/DRESSING/NEW YORK/USA//CR[OWN]/DRESSI [NG]-/FOR/[LADIES AND]CHILD[RENS]/BOOTS AND SHOES/ TRAVELING BAGS/[USA]/PREPARED-[BY]/THE/FRANK MILLER/CO./NEW YORK//CR[OWN] DRESSI[NG]/FOR/DAMEN AND KIN-DER/[BOOTS AND SHOES]/REASETASCHEN/US”. Frank Miller & Sons made shoe blackening products like “Crown Dressing” and “French Blackening” as early as 1838. It is not known when they closed business. Hard-rubber tubing and hot-water bottle valve/clamps would have been used in conjunction with the hard-rubber vaginal fountain syringe for douching, which was recovered from this pit. The fill of Basement 685 was sampled, and it contained a variety of personal artifacts. A 3-ounce colorless jar embossed “TRADE MARK/VASELINE/CHESEBROUGH/NEW YORK”, dating between 1880 and 1955 (Fike 2006:56), was found. Red rubber tubing fragments indicated use of a hot-water bottle in 227 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest conjunction with fountain syringes for douching/enemas. Two vaginal syringe nozzles were observed, as well as a glass plunger for a fountain syringe. A nonferrous safety razor was recovered, and it resembled one advertised in the 1906 Sears catalog at prices ranging from 85 cents to $4.50 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:401–402). Safety razors were patented in the 1880s (Montgomery Ward & Company 1969:445). Also found in this pit were unidentified plastic and rubber fragments representing four dressing combs. Two of the combs were stamped “NO 1064/HERCULES/WARRANTED-/UNBREAKABLE//GOODYEAR 1851”, and “MEDIUM”. An A. S. Hinds lotion bottle, dating between 1890 and 1930 (Toulouse 1971:54); a complete perfume bottle with a beehive-shaped shoulder and a pressed starburst on the base; and one milk-glass jar were also recovered. Noteworthy accessories included two stamped medallions; one (Figure 69) was marked “THE GREAT SEAL OF THE STATE OF ARIZONA” encircling the state crest with the motto “DITAT DEUS” on the obverse, and “WARRANTED/14K/GOLD PLATED” on the reverse. The other was marked “MARIA CONCETTA SENZA PECCATO PREGATI PER LUI/CHE A VOI RECORRIAMO” around the Virgin Mary, and the opposite side depicted two figures (Sts. Peter and Paul) between “ST PETRUS” and “ST PAULUS” (Figure 70). A 14-karat gold-plated ladies’ ring was size 53/4. A delicate link chain of brass (no evidence of plating) may have been used for a small pocket watch. A total of 281 medicine-related glass artifacts (MVC = 140) was recovered from the five features on Block 252, Lot 13. Sixty-seven percent (n = 188; MVC = 93) of medicinal glass on this lot was recovered from Privy Pit 650. About 25 percent (n = 69; MVC = 39) came from Basement 685 and the remaining 9 percent (n = 24; MVC = 8) came from the other three features on this lot (Stairwells 649 and 10655 and Refuse Deposit 642). The stairwells contained a total of 7 medicine-related glass artifacts. Medicinal glass in Stairwell 649 (n = 4; MVC = 3) was found in a single stratigraphic layer and the density of medicinal glass was 0.17 per cubic foot (0.005/m³). The only identified medicinal bottle fragments in Stairwell 649 were from a Wyeth Company bottle with measure cap (1899–1931) (Fike 2006:180). Medicine-related glass in Stairwell 10655 (n = 3; MVC = 2) included the remains of a bottle made for Laroche, which was the early-twentieth-century precursor to the Swiss pharmaceutical giant F. Hoffman-La Roche and Company (1894–present) (Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:89; Riedl 1990:55). The density of medicinal-glass artifacts in this feature was 0.28 per cubic foot (0.008/m³). Refuse Deposit 642 yielded a total of 17 medicinerelated glass artifacts from at least three vessels. Although this feature had five strata, medicinal glass was only recovered from Stratum IV. Medicinal glass density for this feature was 0.44 per cubic foot (0.012/ m³) and 3.73 per cubic foot (0.106/m³) in Stratum IV. All medicinal glass in this feature was from bottles and 76 percent (n = 13; MVC = 2) was hand tooled. No products or bottle manufacturers were identified in this feature. A sample of 69 medicine bottles and fragments (MVC = 39) was collected from Basement 685. Although manufacturing techniques could not be identified on 59 percent (n = 41; MVC = 23) of glass in this feature, 28 percent (n = 19; MVC = 7) of artifacts were machine-made vs. 13 percent (n = 9; MVC = 9) hand tooled. Marks from bottle manufacturers dated to the turn of the twentieth century. Bottles or fragments that had identified bottle makers included fragments of a bottle made by the Diamond Glass Company (1885–1990) and the remains of a bottle made by Whitall-Tatum (1857–1935) (Toulouse 1971:544; Whitten 2009). Shards from four bottles made for Wyeth (1899–1931) were also recovered (Fike 2006:180). Other medicine bottles in Basement 685 represented popular late-nineteenth-century proprietary medicines. These medicines were used to treat female-specific and stomach ailments. Medicinal products identified in this feature included shards from a bottle of Dr. Pierce’s Favorite Prescription (1873–1982), which was advertised for female complaints (Fike 2006:110, 177). Shards from a Pepto Magnan bottle (1891–1985) and a Caldwell’s Syrup Pepsin bottle (1889–1962) were stomach remedies. These three medicines were made as early as 1873 and continued to be sold as late as 1985 (Fike 2006:61, 110, 176–177, 224). Privy Pit 650 contained the largest quantity and greatest density of medical-related glass artifacts on this lot. A total of 188 artifacts was recovered from 8 of the 10 strata in this feature. About 60 percent (n = 113; MVC = 69) of these artifacts had characteristics of hand-finishing vs. 40 percent (n = 75; MVC = 23) that were machine-made or unidentified. Medical-related glass was not found in Strata I and IV, which were the smallest strata by volume. Ninety-six percent of the medicinal glass (n = 180; MVC = 88) from this feature was from bottles, and 8 fragments (MVC = 5) were of cylindrical glass tubing that may have been from ampoules or test tubes. Artifact density throughout the privy pit was 1.18 per cubic foot (0.033/m³). Medicinal glass was most dense in Strata VI, VIIa–g, VIIIa–e, and IXa–b, which, when calculated together, contained 81 per cubic foot (0.051/m³). Stratum VIIIa–e yielded the most artifacts (n = 77; MVC = 23) and was the most dense with 2.51 artifacts per cubic foot (0.071/m³). The privy pit contained products that were advertised to treat a variety of common ailments of the late nineteenth century, specifically respiratory and 228 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 gastrointestinal distress. Artifacts representing 32 datable medicinal bottles and bottle manufacturers were recovered from 5 of the privy’s 10 stratigraphic layers. These manufacturers and the known product uses are summarized in Table 34. The nationally marketed proprietary medicines in Privy Pit 650 were advertised to treat respiratory, gastrointestinal, eye, and endocrine ailments. Respiratory remedies also included fragments from a bottle marked “B.T.H. Vaporizer”, and a bottle partially marked “Menthol Inhaler”; the manufacturers of these medicines remain unidentified. Gastrointestinal treatments in this feature were from popular manufacturers. Thompson’s Eye Water was made by a manufacturer that stayed in business for over 140 years (ca. 1795–1941) (Fike 2006:247), exhibiting the longevity of many medicines. Most of the bottles from this feature represented proprietary medicines, although some medicine bottles designed for use by professional pharmacists were also recovered. Although the contents of bottles made for professional pharmacists could not be identified, the location of their pharmacies was embossed on the bottles. One of these bottles was made for a Tucson pharmacist, Fred Fleishman, who owned property within the project area (Figure 71). Between 1889 and 1897, Fred Fleishman owned property on Block 252, Lot 9, about 15 m north of Privy Pit 650. After his tenure in the project area, he was a pharmacist and operated Fleishman Drug on Congress Street from 1901 until his death in 1924. Fleishman was a prominent Tucsonan who was a member of a number of associations and fraternal organizations (see Chapter 8, Biographies). A bottle was also recovered that could be attributed to Cleveland, Ohio, pharmacist, Henry Stecher. Six commerce-related artifacts were recovered from two features in this block and lot. A nonsystematic sampling of Basement 685 recovered a single U.S. nickel produced in 1908. Stratum IV of Refuse Deposit 642 produced a seated “Liberty” dime dated either 1873 or 1878, giving this stratum a terminus post quem of 1878. This same level also contained four sherds from a bone-ash mining crucible, suggesting that the residents of this lot were engaged in mineral-prospecting activities. Four features in Block 252, Lot 13, produced 54 artifacts relating to recreation. A single harmonica reed, 6 porcelain doll parts, a shattered white and amber glass marble, and 8 white ceramic Bennington marbles with cobalt blue glaze were recovered from the sampling of Basement 685. Privy Pit 650 produced the metal plate from a Kodak camera, 2 plain and 2 glazed ceramic marbles (1 glazed white, 1 salt-glazed brown), and 11 porcelain doll parts. The Kodak company first began selling cameras in 1888 (Kodak Company n.d.), creating a terminus post quem for Stratum V, where the camera fragment was found. One porcelain doll head fragment exhibited pink enameling and a molded left ear. A large fragment of the neck and head of one porcelain doll was marked “64 P D 7 0 X”. Although parts of this mark likely represented a mold number and doll size, the mark was not found in lists of known makers and marks. Another doll fragment was marked “394/[2]/0 D E P”. The mark “DEP”, when it appears with a mold number such as this one, indicates that the mold has been officially registered. It is an abbreviation for the French déposé or the German deponiert (Bach 1985:ix–x). The manufacturer of this mark was not found in standard lists. (Sources indicate that the DEP registration mark is sometimes confused with later French dolls that, unlike this one, were marked simply “DEP” [Herlocher 2002:99]). Stairwell 10655 contained a white ceramic marble, a red glass marble, 4 porcelain doll parts, a cast-metal toy gardening hoe, and a small metal wheel. Stairwell 649, on the other hand, produced part of a white-metal poker chip, a ferrous toy spoon fragment, 4 metal tuning pegs from a stringed musical instrument, 1 hardened rubber ball, a red and blue glass marble, a glazed cobalt blue ceramic marble, 5 refitting pieces of a complete undecorated white porcelain toy cup, a small majolica saucer or plate with cream enamel and black decoration, and a small toy basket made of unglazed stoneware. Nine fragments of smoking pipes were recovered from four features in Lot 13 of Block 252. A piece of a plain kaolin pipe bowl with no evidence of use wear was recovered from Basement 685. Privy Pit 650 contained a kaolin pipe stem fragment in Stratum V and two white Bakelite mouthpieces with threaded ends in Strata IXa–b and Xa–b. The lip end of a kaolin pipe stem with bite wear on one end was excavated from Level 8 of Stairwell 649. The pipe stem, which had “GLASGOW SCOTLA[ND]” stamped on one side and “McDOUGALL” on the other, was produced by the Duncan McDougall Company and imported to the United States from Scotland between 1891 and 1968 (Critchley 2004:A-3–A-4). Refuse Deposit 642 contained four fragments of a kaolin pipe: one from the mouthpiece, shaved on the mouth end to reduce the circumference, and three from the bowl. These fragments were recovered from Strata III and IV, respectively. Twenty-eight communication-related artifacts were recovered from three features in Lot 13 of Block 252. Basement 685 produced 2 body shards from a glass ink bottle, 1 pencil fragment with lead, and 1 metal pencil ferrule. Privy Pit 650 contained 5 pieces of a slate writing board, a complete light-green Carter’s Ink bottle embossed “CARTER’S/1897”, and 10 pencil fragments. Feature 649, a stairwell, produced part of a 229 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest slate pencil from Level 1; 2 fragments of a slate writing board, a pencil ferrule, and a piece of pencil lead from Level 7; and a slate fragment and part of a stylus from Level 8. Sixteen firearms-related artifacts were recovered from Block 252, Lot 13. Refuse Deposit 642 contained a percussion cap. The percussion cap was invented in 1814 for muzzle-loading guns (Logan 1948:3). Two 12-gauge shotgun shells were identified in Stairwell 649. One shell in this feature, the “1901 Leader” (1901–1920), was made by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company and the other shell was a “Majestic” (1901–1911) made by the Union Metallic Cartridge Company (1867–1911) (Goodman 1998:n.p.; White and Munhall 1963:26–27). Stairwell 10655 yielded fragments of a trigger guard and trigger pull from an unidentified firearm. Basement 685 yielded about 69 percent (n = 11) of all weaponry artifacts on this lot. Weaponry artifacts in Basement 685 were primarily ammunition and included six shotgun shells, three cartridge casings, and a lead bullet. Based on its dimensions, the bullet was most likely for a .45 Colt (1870s–1930s) (Barnes 2006:335). Shotgun shells were all 12-gauge made by Winchester Repeating Arms and included two “Leader” (1901–1920) shells and three “Repeater” (1896–1937) shells (Goodman 1998:n.p.; White and Munhall 1963:26–27). Two 45-70 cartridges made by Union Metallic Cartridge Company (1867–1911) (Goodman 1998:n.p.) were also found in this feature. The 45-70 was used by the U.S. military from 1873 to 1892 for the “Trapdoor” Springfield rifle. This cartridge continued to be popular in local militias long after 1900 (Barnes 2006:97). A .32 ACP cartridge (1903–present) made by Winchester Repeating Arms Company was also found in Basement 685. This cartridge was most commonly used in the Colt 32 automatic handgun in the United States, which was a self-defense weapon with what is considered the minimum effective stopping power (Barnes 2006:289). A corroded trigger pull and a lever-action mechanism from an unidentified firearm were also recovered from this feature. A total of 28 transportation-related artifacts was recovered from the five features on Block 252, Lot 13. A draft horseshoe with four horseshoe nails was the only transportation artifact in Refuse Deposit 642. It was recovered from Stratum IV of that feature. A draft horseshoe from Level 5 and a spring clip belonging to some form of animal tack were recovered from Level 7 of Stairwell 649. The animal shoe was heavily worn, especially on the leading edge. In Privy Pit 650, the two halves to a horseshoe were recovered from Stratum IIIa–c, and a harness ring was recovered from Stratum V. Stairwell 10655 yielded four transportation-related artifacts, including a horseshoe, a snap hook, and two harness rings. Basement 685 had the bulk of transportation artifacts (n = 17) from this lot. The fragments of at least seven horseshoes were recovered (n = 9). The remaining eight artifacts were from cars and horse-drawn vehicles and included a leaf spring for a wagon or buggy, two car chassis bolts, three spark plugs, and a cable connection for a car battery. One of the spark plugs was marked “Splitdo”, probably referring to a splitfire-type spark plug. Excavations on Block 252, Lot 13, resulted in the recovery of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts from all five features, and the different density of construction artifact distributions amongst these features provided some insight into depositional behaviors. A total of 2,451 construction and hardware artifacts was collected from the five features. Not surprisingly, architectural features on this lot contained a greater number and density of construction artifacts than did refuse and privy pits. Most of the construction artifacts on this lot came from Basement 685, which contained 42 percent (n = 974) of all construction and hardware artifacts from the lot. Stairwell 649 yielded 19 percent (n = 451) of construction artifacts and had a density of 25.04 per cubic foot (0.7/m³). Stairwell 10655 contained 18 percent (n = 437) of artifacts, with a density of 40.8 per cubic foot (1.16/m³). Construction-materials and hardware-related artifact densities in architectural features contrasted with Refuse Deposit 642 and Privy Pit 650, both of which were domestic features with much lower concentrations than other features on this lot. Refuse Deposit 642 contained 5 percent (n = 134) of artifacts in this category and had a comparatively low density of 5.8 per cubic foot (0.16/ m³). Privy Pit 650 yielded 16 percent (n = 389) of the construction artifacts, but had the lowest construction artifact density at 2.44 per cubic foot (0.07/m³). The difference in construction-materials and hardwarerelated artifact densities between the features on this lot suggested that demolition debris was deposited in architectural features like the stairwells and basements after they were abandoned. Household refuse and other domestic artifacts were more likely to be deposited in a waste disposal pit like Refuse Deposit 642 or Privy Pit 650 during earlier residential occupation. Additionally, Refuse Deposit 642 was a borrow pit that was subsequently partially filled with domestic refuse and may have been filled prior to the construction of the Brewster Apartments on this lot in 1923. Refuse Deposit 642 yielded the lowest number of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts on Block 252, Lot 13 (n = 134). Artifacts in this collection were from a sample consisting of a single 1-by-2-m test pit excavated into this feature. The feature was divided into five stratigraphic units for analytical purposes and construction and hardware artifacts were recovered from four of the five strata. Strata I 230 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 and II yielded only one wire nail fragment and three fragments of window glass. Construction artifacts in Stratum III (n = 19) consisted of 10 window glass fragments and 9 nails and nail fragments, one of which was a complete 60d spike. Stratum IV contained 83 percent (n = 111) of construction and hardware artifacts in this feature. Twenty percent (n = 22) of these artifacts were window glass fragments and 59 percent (n = 66) were wire nails and nail fragments. Four complete nails from this stratum measured 5d (n = 1), 6d (n = 2), and 40d (n = 1), all of which were common nails used in general construction. The remainder of construction and hardware artifacts (n = 23) in Stratum IV included electrical wire fragments (n = 13), bar fragments (n = 7), plumbing pipe (n = 2), and an oilcan spout. The 389 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in Privy Pit 650 were almost entirely window glass, colorless-glass tile fragments, mortar, and nails. The feature was composed of 10 stratigraphic units, and construction-materials artifacts were recovered from 8 of those strata. Although the overall density of construction artifacts in this feature was 2.44 per cubic foot (0.07/m³), this artifact category was concentrated in three strata. Stratum IIIa–c yielded 96 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts, which was 25 percent of the artifacts in this feature. Artifact density in Stratum IIIa–c was 18 per cubic foot (0.33/ m³). Wire nail fragments (n = 70) and window glass (n = 13) were the most-prevalent types of construction artifacts in this stratum. Mortar and plaster fragments (n = 12) were also identified in this stratum. Stratum V contained 21 percent (n = 80) of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in Privy Pit 650, and artifact density was 8.0 per cubic foot (0.23/m³). Wire nails and nail fragments (n = 66) and window glass (n = 12) made up 98 percent of construction artifacts in this stratum. Complete, common wire nails measured 4d (n = 1), 5d (n = 2), 7d (n = 3), 8d (n = 2), and 9d (n = 3). Construction and hardware artifacts in Stratum VI had a density of 11.9 per cubic foot (0.34/m³). This stratum yielded 136 construction artifacts, 98 percent of which were nail fragments (n = 133). A total of 974 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts was excavated from Basement 685. This feature was excavated as a single stratigraphic unit. Nails and nail fragments (n = 567) and window glass (n = 256) made up 84 percent of construction artifacts. Pennyweight could be determined for 50 of the whole nails, which included a roofing tack, 5 double-headed scaffolding nails, and common nails measuring 2d (n = 1), 4d (n = 2), 6d (n = 5), 8d (n = 17), 10d (n = 6), 12d (n = 2), 16d (n = 17), 20d (n = 1), 30 d (n = 1), and 50d (n = 2). Additionally, 6 double-headed 16d nails were identified. The remaining artifacts (n = 218) were mostly plumbing pipe fragments (n = 52), strap and bar fragments (n = 37), and miscellaneous hardware (n = 17) that included unidentified machinery parts and decayed metal. Electrical-related artifacts (n = 61) included ceramic utility-insulator fragments (n = 41), battery parts (n = 13) such as zinc battery core rods, electrical wire fragments (n = 2), and miscellaneous machine parts (n = 5). Batteries in the Joint Courts Complex project area were variations on the Leclanche cell, which was invented in 1866 and had a number of variations by the 1890s. The Leclanche cell used a zinc anode surrounded by a paste of various chemical compounds (Ayrton and Mather 1921:189–200). Other hardware items included 5 carriage bolts, 5 unidentified bolts, 4 lag screws, a wood screw, an unidentified screw, and washers and nuts (n = 3). Identified tools in this feature included a pair of pliers, fragments of a whetstone, a rat-tail file, a triangular file, and fragments of what may have been a socket wrench. The single stratigraphic layer of Stairwell 10655 yielded 437 construction-materials and hardwarerelated artifacts, including nails and nail fragments, window glass, and other hardware. Wire nails and nail fragments (n = 232) and window glass (n = 132) made up 83 percent of construction artifacts. Sixteen common wire nails in this feature measured 2d (n = 2), 5d (n = 5), 6d (n = 2), 7d (n = 1), 9d (n = 3), and 16d (n = 3). Two carpet tacks were also identified. The remaining 73 construction and hardware artifacts in this feature included miscellaneous fragments of bars, rods, or straps (n = 26), machinery bolts (n = 15), 2 hinges, 5 nuts, 4 washers, a machine screw, a lag screw, a rivet, a white flooring-tile fragment, and 2 fragments of metal plumbing pipe. A chisel, fragments of at least 2 half-round files (n = 6), and the head of what may have been a small cobbler’s hammer were the identified tools in this feature. Stairwell 649 contained 449 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts recovered from all 11 stratigraphic units. Nails, nail fragments, and window glass fragments were the most-prevalent types of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts. Electrical artifacts included 3 ceramic utility-insulator fragments. Mortar or plaster fragments were only identified in Levels 1 and 8, and concrete was identified in Level 2. Bolts and washers were also identified throughout this feature. A sharpened spike, possibly an awl, was identified in Level 5. Stratigraphic concentrations of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in Stairwell 649 have been interpreted to represent different deposition episodes. Throughout this feature, the density of construction artifacts was 24.9 per cubic foot (0.71/m³) and 86 percent of this artifact category was nails, nail fragments, and window glass. Construction artifact density was highest in Levels 2 (68.42 per cubic foot or 1.94/ 231 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest m³), 4 (45.5 per cubic foot or 1.29/m³), and 7 (38.6 per cubic foot or 1.09/m³). Construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were the most frequent artifact category throughout this feature. Stratigraphic layers in this feature were relatively thin, and excavations only removed a total of 18.01 cubic feet (0.51m³) of sediment. Concentrations of construction artifacts in Levels 2, 4, and 7 suggested that masses of demolition debris were deposited in this feature in a short time period after the building was abandoned. These mass deposition events were followed by periods when sediments with less architectural debris were deposited on top of strata dense with construction artifacts. Because construction artifacts were less dense in the lower half of this feature, Levels 8–11, mass deposition events took place after the feature was abandoned. Hundreds of artifacts relating to lighting or electricity were recovered from excavations in the five features in Lot 13 of Block 252. Refuse Deposit 642 contained 4 shards of chimney glass and 3 white glass fragments likely from a kerosene lamp shade. Stairwell 649 produced 3 ceramic insulator parts and 3 glass shards from a lamp chimney, and Stairwell 10655 produced 3 shards of lightbulb glass and 2 metal lamp fragments. Privy Pit 650 contained over 100 shards of lamp-chimney glass, at least 1 of which was decorated with a machine-molded top. Finally, Basement 685 produced 5 dry-cell battery fragments, 41 ceramic insulator pieces, approximately 100 glass and metal lamp fragments, part of a glass lightbulb, 3 pieces of metal tubing for electrical wire, 1 clump of electrical wire, and 1 complete, round porcelain switch plate. At least 2 of the glass lamp fragments were colorless chimney glass shards decorated with a ruffled or hurricane fluted pattern, one of which was yellowish in appearance. Another 5 shards were milk glass and appeared to represent the remains of a lamp globe. Metal lamp parts from the basement feature included part of the cast-iron base of a heavy lamp, a lamp cap, and several metal rims. The five features from Block 252, Lot 13, yielded household artifacts consisting of hardware, appliance parts, glass bottles, containers, and other artifacts. Most of the household artifacts from this lot came from Basement 685. The fill of Basement 685 contained an iron stove leg, hardware, bottles, other containers, and other household artifacts. Hardware included a brass cabinet pull handle stamped “CHASE” and a partial ferrous wheel caster. Chase Brass and Copper Co. manufactured the pull as early as 1837 (Chase Brass and Copper Company 2009). A bucket or pail was represented by one ferrous fragment. One reliefmolded semivitreous white-bodied earthenware vase was stamped “JOHNSON BROS/-ENGLAND/1902”, indicating deposition during or after that year. Fragments from one carnival-glass vessel and a nonferrousmetal matchbox were also recovered. Typical carnival-glass vessels are decorative pressed-glass, iridescent tablewares. Their period of greatest popularity was between 1905 and 1930 (Edwards 1996:4). The metal matchbox had an external friction press-fit lid and ribbed-surface base for the match strike plate. Colorless flat-glass shards represented a desktop or countertop. Forty-six shards representing a minimum of two machine-made bottles and two glass bottles of unidentified technology were in the basement deposits. Bottle contents included sewing machine oil and cleaning solution. The sewing machine oil bottle was embossed “THE SINGER MFG CO NY/S/TRADEMARK”, indicating a deposit date as early as 1865 and as late as 1963 (Singer Sewing Company 2003). One of the cleaning solution bottles was embossed “TH[IS] CONTA[INS] MRS. STEWART[‘S] BLUING”. Embossment indicated the bottle was produced between the 1920s and 1960s (Mrs. Stewart’s Bluing 2009). Temporally diagnostic household items from this feature were not helpful in refining our understanding of deposition activity, as the items were in production both before and after this feature was in use, spanning a range from 1837 to the 1960s. Stairwell 10655 contained fragments representing at least one terracotta flowerpot and a colorless pressed-glass dish used on a dresser or desk. One of the 11 stratigraphic layers (Level 9) of Refuse Deposit 642 contained a ferrous-metal foot from a household furnishing such as a chair or sofa. Three of the 10 stratigraphic layers (middle and lower) of Privy Pit 650 contained hardware and other household artifacts. Hardware was represented by a stamped nonferrous disk similar to those still used on the ends of spring-load roller window shades. Other household artifacts included brass wire and stamped flowers that may have been from a wreath, a charred candlewick fragment, and laundry bluing balls. Faunal remains from Refuse Deposit 642 included beef cuts that came from throughout the postcranial body but were not distributed equally. Although over 400 fragments of cow or bone from cow-sized taxa were recovered (Table 35), more than 300 of the cow-sized mammal bones were sawn into small pieces and were less than 35 mm in maximum dimension; they could not be identified to element. This suggested that most of the cuts were relatively thin. The sheep/goat and sheep/goat-sized bone was likewise largely in small pieces, consisting of a scattering of single rib, neck bone, lower leg, and upper leg bones. The only pig bone from the feature consisted of a single third phalanx. A few bones of a cow-sized mammal were recovered from Stratum I. The faunal collection from Stratum III consisted largely of cow or cow-sized mammal bone, with a few bones each from a chicken-sized bird, black-tailed jackrabbit, and indeterminate mammal. 232 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 A small sample of bones was recovered from 11 levels of Stairwell 649 (Table 36). Black bullhead catfish and cottontail remains provided evidence for the use of wild taxa. The duck or teal bone could have represented either wild birds or domesticated duck. Beef cuts were mostly rib and unidentified vertebral sections with a few other elements, including scapula and innominate. No cranial, lower leg, tail, or foot bones were recovered. Similar cuts were seen in sheep/goat and sheep-sized mammal bone—axial bones, ribs, and vertebrae, including cervical and thoracic vertebrae. Both cow- sized and sheep/goat sized taxa were also represented by a very few appendicular elements as well; both had one or two forelimb portions. Pork consisted exclusively of a left tibia and fibula that were probably part of the same unit, perhaps as a ham hock. Irregular cut marks on the tibia suggested that it may have been sawn by hand. Three-quarters of the bone from Level 1 was identified as cow-sized mammal. Most of the remaining bone was assigned to chicken- and turkey-sized birds, but there was also black bullhead catfish bone. Most bone from Level 2 was identified as belonging to cow-sized mammal. A few pieces of bone from a chicken-sized bird, cottontail, and pig were also present. The greatest proportion of bone from Level 3 was assigned to indeterminate-sized mammal, followed by cow and cow-sized, and sheep/goat-sized taxa. A handful of other taxa were present, including chicken, turkey, chicken-sized bone, and rabbit-sized mammal. The collection from Level 4, on the other hand, consisted entirely of bones from large domesticated mammals, divided nearly equally between cows/ cow-sized mammals and sheep/goat-sized mammals. A single fragment of bone from a cow-sized mammal was recovered from Level 5, and several bone fragments were recovered from Level 6. These were identified as cow-sized mammal, sheep/goat-sized mammal, and dabbling ducks and teals. The collection from Level 7 was small but included bone from several classes, including fish bone (identifiable only as bony fish), chicken-sized and indeterminate-sized birds, and sheep/goat-sized mammals. Bones of bony fish were recovered in Level 8 but in very low numbers. A few bones were identified as chicken and chicken-sized birds, and a few were cow-sized and sheep/goat-sized mammals. Level 9 included a slightly larger sample of bone than the previous three levels and the following two levels. There were a few more sheep/goat bones and bones of a sheep/goat-sized mammals than there were bones of chickens and chicken-sized birds, and a single fragment of a rabbit-sized mammal bone. Only a few bones were recovered in Level 10. All were mammal bones, either indeterminate or from large domestic animals—pig, sheep/goat, or cow-sized and sheep/goat-sized mammals. Only two bone fragments were found in Level 11. Both belonged to an indeterminate mammal of unknown size. Very little could be interpreted from this small sample. The fairly large faunal collection from Privy Pit 650, numbering more than 700 bones, was also diverse in terms of species represented (Table 37). Aside from the dominant very-large and extra-large mammals, there were a number of small mammal and bird species, in addition to fish. Bone from cow and cow-sized taxa from the privy pit included the usual axial bone, vertebrae and ribs, but also included more neck, tail, and limb bones than were found in Refuse Deposit 642. No foot bones or cranial bones were recovered, but the tibiae, radius, ulna, and carpals were represented. Several femur midsections probably represented round steaks. Other bones were likely beef shanks, and other lower-cost cuts. In general, meat cuts from the cow and sheep/goat-sized mammal from Privy Pit 650 and Refuse Deposit 642 were much more like one another than they were like the remains from Stairway 649. As was found in Refuse Deposit 642, the kinds of meat cuts represented by the sheep/goat-sized bone more-or-less mirrored that of the larger taxa, with vertebra and rib sections dominating, but limbs were also well represented. There were some differences between the size classes. There were no caudal vertebrae for sheep/goat-sized taxa, and only a few foot bones were found. Much more pig bone was identified in Privy Pit 650 compared to Stairwell 649, including vertebrae, a scapula, and appendicular bones. The scapula may have been a portion of a shoulder or picnic ham. Front and hind foot bones were well represented. A single fragment of a cow innominate was recovered from Stratum IIa–b deposits. In contrast with Stratum IIa–b, nearly 100 bones and bone fragments were recovered from Stratum IIIa–c. Of these, nearly 90 percent were identified as large domestic animals—pig, cow, sheep/goat-sized and cow-sized mammals. The remainder included a few Pacific mackerel, chicken and chicken-sized bird, rabbit-sized mammal, and a bird the size of a songbird. Eggshell was also recovered from this stratum. Domestic chicken and chicken-sized bird made up less than 10 percent of the total NISP from Stratum V. Quail bone and bone from quail-sized birds were present. Black-tailed jackrabbit bone was also identified. The remains of at least two kittens were found in these deposits. Over half of the bone was identified as cow or cow-sized mammal, and sheep/goatsized mammals contributed another 20 percent. Small quantities of pig bones were also recovered. Chicken bone and bone from chicken-sized taxa made up over one-quarter of the bone from Stratum VI. A few pieces of leporid bone were found. The remaining bone consisted of indeterminate mammal bone, which made up nearly a third of the total NISP, as well as pig, cow, cow-sized, and sheep/goat-sized mammals. Wild taxa 233 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest from Stratum VIIa–g included cottontail and indeterminate leporid bone, grasshopper mouse, and turtle. The remains of at least two neonatal kittens were recovered from this stratum as well. In contrast to Strata III and V, sheep/goat and sheep/goat-sized mammal greatly outnumbered cow-sized mammals and made up nearly a third of the NISP from this stratum. About two dozen copper rockfish and unidentified bony fish bones were recovered from Stratum VIIIa–e. Together, the fish bone contributed approximately 30 percent of the total NISP for this stratum. Other bone included quail-, chicken-, and turkey-sized birds, a squirrel-sized mammal, and cow- and sheep/goat-sized mammal bones. The remains of an additional two kittens were recovered in this stratum. Bird bone made up a larger portion of the collection from Stratum IXa–b than the other strata, with the exception of Stratum VI. Remains of songbird-sized, chicken-sized, and turkey-sized birds were recovered and made up more than 30 percent of the total. The remaining bone was identified as sheep/goat, cow-sized, sheep/goat and cow-sized, and indeterminate mammal. Only a small handful of bones were recovered from Stratum Xa–b. All were either sheep/goat or sheep/goat-sized. Pig bones made up nearly 20 percent of the fauna from Stratum IXa–b. Pig bone in this feature consisted largely of foot bones, with few other elements; this suggests a possible preference for pig’s feet. There were more pig bones from Stratum IXa–b than other elements, but Stratum IXa–b also included most of the pig bone recovered from this feature, including a few vertebrae and a patella. Two sizes of kittens were found in Privy Pit 650—at least two neonatal and at least three subadults. The older kittens were probably more than 42 days old but less than 196 days old based on epiphyseal fusion and dentition. All neonatal kitten bones were found in Stratum VII, but bones from older kittens were found in Strata V and VIIIa–e. Less than 50 bones and bone fragments were recovered from Basement 685 (Table 38). Eggshell was also recovered, and mammal and bird bone were found. Not surprisingly, mammal bone made up the greater portion of the material recovered, but the overall amount of mammal bone was lower in this feature than in many others. Cow and cow-sized taxa made up less than 50 percent of the whole, and birds contributed more than 25 percent of the fauna. It is important to emphasize that this does not mean that birds made up this high a proportion of the diet. Bone from cow-sized mammals and cattle included one or a few bones from several meat cuts, but there did not appear to have been a strong preference for any one cut. One proximal right ulna of a cow was tentatively identified as belonging to the subspecies Bos indicus and may have been one of the Asian cattle breeds such as Brahma, zebu, or a crossbreed. Sheep-sized bone included a few rib, innominate, and indeterminate fragments. A few jackrabbit limb elements were identified. Fewer than 100 bones were recovered from Stairwell 10655 (see Table 38). Of these, the greatest number was identified as cow or cow-sized mammal. Sheep/goat, pig, and sheep/goat-sized mammal were represented by only a few specimens. The second largest category was made up of chickens and chicken-sized birds. A few turkey, quail, and dove- or quail-sized bird bones were found. Eggshell was also recovered. Most of the bone from cow-sized mammals could not be identified to meat cut, consisting only of broken and sawn fragments. Identifiable bones included a handful of lumbar vertebral fragments, innominate, humerus, and ribs. The bone from sheep/goat-sized taxa included a few vertebra, scapula, humerus and rib fragments. A single pig astragalus was identified. Stratum III of Refuse Deposit 642 contained a single piece of eastern oyster (Table 39). The shellfish may have originated from the West Coast sometime after the 1870s (Barrett 1963) or possibly from the eastern United States; Tucson newspapers from the period advertised shipments of fresh Berwick Bay (Louisiana) oysters and Baltimore oysters (ADS, 27 February 1889:4, “Ad for Baltimore oysters”). Stratum IV contained two fragments (MNI = 1) of edible Pacific littleneck clam, likely originating in the Pacific Ocean. Stratum IV also contained one piece of worked red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) shell (Figure 72). The worked fragment was rectangular in shape and consisted of two edges that were cut and ground in addition to a third ground edge. Considering the extent of modification, the worked abalone shell may have been a blank for formal artifact production, perhaps for mother-of-pearl buttons or jewelry manufacture. Abalone shell was commonly used during the nineteenth and early twentieth century for the manufacture of buttons and jewelry (Hector 2002:107). Overall, the refuse deposit contained a low frequency of invertebrate remains, made up of two edible varieties of oyster and clam, likely representing the remains of fresh seafood that was shipped daily, via railroad, from California to local meat markets (Barrett 1963; Hector 2002). The Pacific littleneck clam likely came from the Pacific Ocean, whereas the eastern oyster may have come from the East or possibly West Coast sometime after 1870s. The worked red abalone fragment was a relatively unusual find, indicating that an individual associated with the refuse deposit may have been trying his or her hand at manufacturing something from the shell. A single (MNI = 1) concave scallop (Euvola vogdesi) shell, weighing 5.5 g, was 234 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 recovered from Stairwell 10655. The scallop, an edible variety likely originating in the Pacific Ocean, may have been consumed or brought back to Tucson for a seashell collection. Compared to other Joint Courts Complex postcemetery contexts, Basement 685 contained the greatest diversity of invertebrate taxa as well as the second highest frequency of remains, in terms of MNI and NISP, although not in weight (Table 40). Overall, the collection was made up of a moderate amount of mostly edible varieties of bivalves, making up more than 75 percent of the total invertebrate weight recovered from the feature. These edible varieties included Pacific giant oyster and California mussel, as well as different varieties of clams and scallops. The only identifiable gastropod in the collection consisted of five Atlantic slipper shells. These shells, which may have originated in either the Pacific or Atlantic Oceans, were probably not food remains; the edible shellfish varieties were likely brought to Tucson from the Pacific Coast. Although most of the shells likely represented food remains, it is possible some of them may have been collected during a visit to the seashore or were part of a personal seashell collection. Macrobotanical samples were collected from three features on Block 252, Lot 13 (see Appendix J). Eight taxa were identified, and six were only observed in Privy Pit 650. Mesquite fragments were recovered from Refuse Deposit 642, and pomegranate seeds were collected from Stairwell 649. Sediment samples taken from 4 of the 10 stratigraphic units of Privy Pit 650 provided a better snapshot of plants used on this lot during the historical period. Four of the six identified plants were foods. The remains of figs, raspberries, and corn were in samples from the privy. The remains of an indeterminate member of the Fabaceae (wild pea) family were also recovered. Fig seeds were observed in nearly every sampled stratum indicating the continued consumption of figs through time, perhaps as a dietary laxative (Meyer 1960). Fragments of woods in the Cupressus/Juniperus (cypress/juniper) and Pinus (pine) genera were also identified in the privy. These woods are found in the Arizona highlands and are commonly employed in construction. Mesquite fragments were ubiquitous in this feature and most likely represented a widely available fuel. Chronology, Correlation, and Summary In summary, unstratified Refuse Pit 7841 from Lot 11 yielded a variety of domestic refuse, but unfortunately this pit could not be positively associated with a particular household, or even with a particular residence. Although this lot was occupied from 1889 to 1955, the diagnostic ceramics were made between 1904 and 1918. Food and beverage containers from the feature were produced between the initial residential occupation to about 1930. The varieties of liquor containers from the feature were not temporally diagnostic and did not refine our understanding of dates of deposition for the feature. Men’s and women’s clothing were represented by buttons recovered from this feature, and one jewelry fragment was recovered. The pit contained a wide array of construction materials, mostly wire nails and window glass. Refuse Pit 7841 also contained parts of a child’s tricycle and an adult’s quadracycle. Cycling was a popular adult pastime for both men and women from the early 1800s to the early 1900s (Callahan and Callahan 1997:n.p.). A wide variety of cycles, or velocipedes, were introduced, including unicycles, bicycles, tricycles, and quadracycles. Period drawings and photographs illustrate a seemingly infinite variety of designs, with wheels, seats, and suspension systems positioned in various ways, and it was not possible to determine the exact design of the example from Refuse Pit 7841. At the turn of the twentieth century, quadracycles were apparently less readily available than the bicycles and tricycles offered in mail-order catalogs. The 1984 Sears catalog (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1976:180–184) (the first Sears catalog to include items other than watches and jewelry [Sears Archives 2009]) offered five bicycles ranging in cost from $11.90 to $55.95. In 1895, Montgomery Ward & Company (1969:1, 555) produced a catalog devoted specifically to bicycles, and models for adults and children were advertised. By 1897, bicycles and tricycles for adults were available from the Sears catalog; the catalog included four pages of cycling equipment and accessories (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 2007 [1897]:573–581). With the increasing popularity of automobiles after the turn of the twentieth century, cycling fell from popularity. One car part was recovered from Refuse Pit 7841. The feature also yielded a few electrical components, indicating deposition after about 1893, when the neighborhood was electrified. The faunal collection from Refuse Pit 7841 contained 412 bones and bone fragments and a few pieces of eggshell. As was found in many other features, cow and probable cow bone dominated the collection, making up ca. 85 percent of the bone (see Table 32). No cranial or foot bones were recovered, but a caudal 235 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest vertebra was identified. Bones represented axial and limb elements, with most assigned to short unidentified sections from long bones, flat bones, or unidentified fragments. The inhabitants did not show a strong preference for any one cut of meat for their beef intake. Faunal remains from Refuse Pit 7848 contained high proportions of mammal bones, with more evidence of sheep/goat-sized mammal bone than was often found. In order of percentage, bones represented cattle, or similar-sized taxa, sheep and sheep-sized mammals or sheep/goat, birds, squirrel-sized mammals, and rabbit-sized mammals. Unstratified Refuse Pit 7848 was very similar to Refuse Pit 7841 in material culture content, and, like Refuse Pit 7841, could not be attributed with certainty to a particular household or residence. Food and beverage containers from the feature were produced between 1913 and the abandonment of the feature. One of the several liquor containers from this feature could be identified as to date of production; it was made after 1900. Personal artifacts from the feature were produced between 1880 and 1955, and they included containers for lotion, a Vaseline product, and cosmetics. Two oral thermometers indicated home health care. Medicines represented in the refuse pit included Mentholatum jars and patent/prescriptions medicine bottles dating between 1857 and 1953. A few electrical components were recovered; the neighborhood received electrical service around 1893. Macrobotanical remains from Lot 11 represented milled lumber and other construction materials, fuel, native plants, an invasive weed, landscaping shrubs, and foods. Figs and grapes were the only food plants identified. From Lot 12, a single stratigraphic layer from Refuse Pit 7564 yielded a variety of domestic debris. Diagnostic ceramic sherds were made between 1851 and 1959, but this lot was occupied from 1889 to 1955. Among the ceramics was a Chinese rice bowl and a bowl from northern Mexico; both are fairly common in archaeological deposits of the Tucson Basin. The feature produced evidence of both men’s and women’s clothing and a shoe. Lightbulb fragments from the feature indicated deposition after the neighborhood received electricity in about 1893. Faunal remains included large mammals such as cattle, sheep, and deer. Liquor bottle fragments from Animal Burial 11404 suggested deposition during the earliest years of residential occupation on the lot, but the burial could not be positively assigned to a residential occupation. It may have predated the structures on Block 252, Lot 11, and represented a random burial location selected by a nearby resident, or it may indeed have been the remains of the dog that was reported to have been thrown into a grave pit during the last years of cemetery use. Native plant species from this feature were used as foods during ethnographic times but likely were not consumed by occupants of this lot. Mesquite may have represented fuel or building material. Recovered food plants were grain staples, including barley, wheat, and corn that undoubtedly were consumed by historical residents. Archaeological features on Block 252, Lot 13, contained a variety of domestic refuse and construction debris dating from the occupations of the lot, and construction debris that likely postdated demolition of residences on the lot. Stairwell 649 produced a livestock medal that remains unattributed to any particular occupant of the lot. It does, however, suggest that someone associated with Block 252, Lot 13, engaged in the livestock trade. The feature also contained two fragments of horse tack, a smoking pipe fragment, and electrical artifacts indicating deposition after about 1893. Medicine containers from the feature indicated manufacture between 1899 and 1931. The collection included a poker chip, fragments of a stringed instrument, shotgun shells dated 1867–1911, and evidence of the consumption of wild taxa. Five toy fragments were recovered. A boy was born to the Lucid family while they lived on the lot in 1900, although the length of their tenure is unknown; other families on the lot may have had children as well. Basement 685 (Building D) contained fragments of a chain-mail butcher’s glove, suggesting that an occupant of that household worked as a butcher or processed large cuts of meat at home. Based on the vertebrate and invertebrate findings from this lot, use of the glove for oyster shucking might be a better interpretation. Temporally diagnostic artifacts from Basement 685 included fragments of two carnival-glass vessels dated between 1905 and the 1920s and a church-key bottle opener dated 1935–1962. A stone mortar may represent the adoption of Native American or Mexican foodways, or it could have been a manuport from a nearby prehistoric context. Other artifacts, including soda pop, beverage, and condiment bottles, indicated manufacture between 1905 and 1965. Personal and medicinal artifacts included a Vaseline product, lotion containers, and a number of bottles containing preparations to treat female and stomach ailments. Medicines advertised to treat a variety of illnesses, sometimes called “buckshot” medicines, were among the most prolific and least effective of nineteenth-century medicine. At their worst, they claimed to cure ailments at opposite ends of the spectrum, such as diarrhea and constipation. These remedies were often patented or proprietary blends that were at the forefront of criticism by early-twentieth-century pure food and drug advocates (Harmon 2003). 236 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 A religious medal was recovered, along with one commemorating the state of Arizona. At least 10 pieces of ammunition, manufactured between the 1870s and 1937, represented use of shotguns and handguns. Refuse Pit 642 may have originally been a borrow pit, and it produced artifacts representing smoking pipes, a percussion cap, a draft horseshoe, men’s pants, medicinal preparations dating between 1885 and 1990, a dime dated 1873 or 1878, and construction debris likely representing demolition on the lot. Most of the faunal bones from the refuse deposit were recovered in Stratum IV. Of these, more than 90 percent were identified as cow or from cow-sized mammals. Sheep/goat and sheep/goat-sized mammal bones were also recovered, but these made up less than 5 percent of the total NISP. One or a few bones each from duck, chicken, songbird-sized, and pig were recovered. The mandible and both humeri of a very young, probably neonatal, domestic cat were also found. Privy Pit 650 yielded food and beverage containers dating between 1869 and 1972; personal artifacts consisting of cosmetic, perfume, and hygiene containers dated between 1870 and 1930; and medicinal preparations used to treat respiratory, gastrointestinal, eye, and endocrine ailments. Other artifacts from the feature included a camera part and five toy fragments. The ratios of sheep/goat-sized mammals to cowsized mammals and of birds to large artiodactyls varied between strata of the privy pit. Pig bone was present in low numbers in most strata. Fish bone was most prevalent in Stratum VIIa–e but was also present in Stratum IIIa–c. There were no strong patterns consistent through time. Overall, the faunal contents of the several features in Lot 13 seemed to reflect shopping patterns that took advantage of lower-cost meats such as neck, tail, and lower leg bones, in addition to more-expensive beef cuts. Similar purchasing decisions seemed to be apparent in sheep/goat bones. A few bones from wild taxa were recovered—most were quail, rabbit, or jackrabbit—and the ratios of cow to other major economic taxa varied between features. Remains of at least three kinds of fish were also found in the Lot 13 features. Cat remains were found in two features on Lot 13, from Features 642 and 650. Because the cats were of varying ages, the disposal did not indicate a single event, such as disposal of an unwanted litter. Pathology did not indicate traumatic death; cats on this lot could have died from natural causes or could have been killed and disposed of in the features. Macrobotanical analysis on the lots yielded some information regarding building materials that might have been used there, particularly pine and fir, which would have available from local mills. Native mesquite was likely used for fuel. Chinaberry had, by the turn of the twentieth century, become a common landscaping plant in the desert Southwest, and its presence in the collection added to our understanding of the appearance of the lots. Figs and grapes were identified among food remains; as the Spanish travelled northward across Sonora, they planted familiar fruit plants, including grapes and figs, and by the early twentieth century Old World fruit trees were well established in yards and gardens. Either figs or grapes could have been grown on the lots or in the immediate vicinity. Corn was likely obtained at a local market, but it also could have been grown on the lot. Other plant foods such as barley and wheat were likely obtained at local markets. In summary, Lots 11, 12, and 13 of Block 252 functioned as a unit, particularly in the later years after apartments were constructed there. Artifactual evidence from throughout the residential period indicated the presence of families with men, women, and children. Few residents had a long tenure on these lots, and consequently, the archaeological record does not add much information to the demographic picture created by archival sources. Residential occupation on the lot spanned the transition to electric lighting and the use of automobiles; both are reflected in the artifact collection and identified features. Analysis of ceramics, food and beverage containers, personal artifacts, and medicine containers from Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13, resulted in production dates that fit neatly with the residential period in the project area. Some activities by the residents were revealed in the archaeological record; these included an adult’s quadracycle, a poker chip, a stringed instrument, a camera, ammunition and the remains of wild taxa, oyster shucking and consumption, and perhaps the keeping of dogs, cats, and chickens. Material culture from the three lots indicated a middle-class lifestyle with few items solely for luxury or display. Two carnival-glass vessels dated from the earliest years of residential occupation, and these may have been heirloom pieces. Faunal remains suggested both low-cost cuts and expensive beef cuts. These lots were home to the only apartment complex in the project area and may have housed lower-income tenants. Construction debris represented the demolition of residential structures and the later commercial buildings. 237 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 58. Block 252, Lot 13. 238 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Figure 59. Dog Burial from Block 252, Lot 11, Feature 11404. 239 Figure 60. Feature Profile of Privy Pit 650. Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 240 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Figure 61. Possible original configuration of quadracycle parts from Block 252, Lot 11, Refuse Pit 7841 (Inventory No. 080006CBB). 241 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 62. Quadracycle parts from Block 252, Lot 11, Refuse Pit 7841 (Inventory No. 080006CBB). 242 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Figure 63. Enameled Chinese celadon rice bowl from Block 252, Lot 13, Privy Pit 650 (Inventory No. 08000B5E3). Figure 64. Cake knife from Block 252, Lot 13, Stairwell 649 (Inventory No. 080006B46). 243 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 65. Mortar from Block 252, Lot 13, Basement 685 (Inventory No. 08000C5E4). Figure 66. Taylor and Williams whiskey bottle from Block 252, Lot 13, Privy Pit 650 (Inventory No. 08000B1E2). 244 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Figure 67. Decorative metal button from Block 252, Lot 13, Privy Pit 650 (Inventory No. 0800018AA). Figure 68. Livestock medal from Block 252, Lot 13, Stairwell 649 (Inventory No. 080001428). 245 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 69. Arizona seal medallion from Block 252, Lot 13, Basement 685 (Inventory No. 08000C872). Figure 70. Religious medallion from Block 252, Lot 13, Basement 685 (Inventory No. 08000C871). 246 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Figure 71. Medicine bottle for Fred Fleishman, local pharmacist, from Block 252, Lot 13, Privy Pit 650 (Inventory No. 080000FF8). Figure 72. Worked red abalone shell from Block 252, Lot 13, Refuse Deposit 642 (Inventory No. 08000B782). 247 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 32. Faunal Remains from Block 252, Lot 11 Feature 7848 Common Name NISP Feature 7841 % NISP Total % NISP Gambel’s quail — 1 1 Domestic chicken — 2 2 Quail- or dove-sized bird — 1 1 Chicken-sized bird 2 2 7 2 Bird, size indeterminate 1 1 — 1 Squirrel-sized mammal 1 1 2 3 Rabbit-sized mammal 2 2 — 2 % 9 2 1 Rabbit or hare — 1 1 Domestic cat — 1 1 Cow-sized mammal 21 25 349 85 370 75 Sheep/goat-sized mammal 48 57 41 10 89 18 Cow — 4 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 — 7 Sheep/goat Pig Mammal, size indeterminate 2 2 — 7 8 Unidentifiable — 1 1 Total 84 412 496 — 3 — Eggshell 1 Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. Table 33. Faunal Remains from Block 252, Lot 12 Feature 7564 Common Name Feature 11404 NISP % NISP Ducks, geese, and swans 1 2 Chicken-sized bird 2 Rabbit-sized mammal 1 Domestic dog (burial) — Cow-sized mammal 45 Sheep-sized mammal % Total NISP % — 1 1 3 — 2 2 2 — 1 1 1 2 1 1 70 40 95 85 81 7 10 1 2 8 8 Cow 2 3 — 2 2 Mammal, size indeterminate 5 8 — 5 5 Unidentifiable 1 2 — 1 1 63 42 106 2 — — Total Eggshell Note: Dog burial counted as 1. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 248 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Table 34. Medicine Bottle Summary for Privy Pit 650, Block 252, Lot 13, Feature 650 Stratum MVC Manufacturer/ Product Origin Dates of Production Product Use Reference IXa–b 3 Whitall Tatum and Company Millville, New Jersey 1857–1935 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:544 IIIa–c, VI, VIII 4 Obear-Nestor Glass Company East St. Louis, Illinois 1915–1980 container, unknown contents Whitten 2009 XIa–b 2 California Fig Syrup San Francisco, California 1880s–1920 gastrointestinal Fike 2006:225 IXa–b 1 Illinois Glass Company Alton, Illinois 1915–1929 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:264 VII, IXa–b 2 Dr. King’s New Discovery St. Louis, Missouri 1878–1948 respiratory Fike 2006:109 VIII, IXa–b 2 Adelbert M. Foster and Company/ Fred Fleishman United States 1895–1911/ 1880–1924 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:44; Chapman Publishing Company 1901 IXa–b 3 Protonuclein New York, New York 1876–1986 gland treatment Fike 2006:178,195 VIIIa–e 1 Wm. McCully and Company Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1832–1886 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:351 VIII, VIIIa–e 2 T. C. Wheaton Glass Company Millville, New Jersey 1888–present container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:351; Whitten 2009 VIIIa–e 1 Parke Davis and Company Detroit, Michigan 1875–present container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:417 VIIIa–e 1 “CB&CO” unknown manufacturer unknown ca.1870/1880 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:117 VIIIa–e 3 Thompson Eye Water Connecticut 1795–1941 eye wash Fike 2006:245 VII 1 Chamberlain’s Cough Remedy Des Moines, Iowa 1850–1930 respiratory Fike 2006:206 VII 1 F. Brown’s Jamaica Ginger United States early twentieth century “buckshot” remedy Munsey 2006 VII 2 Whitney Glassworks United States 1890–1918 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971: 519–521 VI 1 Bromo-Seltzer Baltimore, Maryland 1899–present gastrointestinal Fike 2006:111 VI 1 Pitcher’s Castoria United States 1863–1923 gastrointestinal Fike 2006:177 IIIa–c 1 Hamlin’s Wizard Oil Cincinnati, Ohio 1860s–1983 “buckshot” remedy Fike 2006:193 Key: MVC = minimum vessel count. 249 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 35. Faunal Remains from Refuse Deposit 642, Block 252, Lot 13 Common Name Stratum I NISP % Stratum III NISP % Stratum IV Total NISP % NISP % Mallard duck — — 1 <1 1 <1 Domestic chicken — — 2 <1 2 <1 Chicken-sized bird — 1 2 <1 3 1 Quail- or dove-sized — — 5 1 5 1 Rabbit or hare — — 1 <1 1 <1 Black-tailed jackrabbit — 1 1 <1 Domestic cat — — 3 1 3 1 Pig — — 1 <1 1 <1 Cow — 1 24 5 25 5 Sheep/goat — — 4 1 4 1 Cow-sized mammal 2 438 90 452 89 Sheep/goat-sized mammal — — 5 1 5 1 Mammal, size indeterminate — 4 5 1 9 2 Total 2 19 Note: No eggshell present. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 250 100 12 5 5 5 58 26 — 491 512 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Table 36. Faunal Remains from Stairwell 649, Block 252, Lot 13 Common Name Level 1 NISP Black bullhead catfish 1 Level 2 % 4 NISP Level 3 % NISP Level 4 % NISP Level 5 % NISP % Level 6 NISP Level 7 % NISP — — — — — — Level 8 % Level 9 % NISP Level 10 % NISP Level 11 % NISP % Total NISP % — — — — 1 1 — — — — 1 1 — — — 2 2 — — — 1 1 — — 4 3 Bony fish — — — — — — 1 Carps and minnows — — — — — — — 2 Dabbling ducks and teals — — — — — 1 — — Domestic chicken — — 1 3 — — — — 1 Wild or domestic turkey — — 1 3 — — — — — — — — 1 1 — — — — — — — — — 1 1 — — — 3 33 2 — — 15 12 — — — — 1 11 — — — — 1 1 — — — — — — — — — 1 1 — — — — — 1 — — 2 2 — — — — — — 1 — 2 2 — — — — — — — 4 3 — — — — 2 1 13 — 2 25 6 Turkey-sized bird 1 4 — Chicken-sized bird 4 17 1 10 1 Bird, size indeterminate — — Cottontail — 1 Rabbit-sized mammal — — Pig — 1 Cow — — — Sheep/goat — — — Cow-sized mammal 18 Sheep/goat-sized mammal — Mammal, size indeterminate Total Eggshell 75 7 10 1 10 70 3 3 — 4 25 — 8 24 4 25 — 7 21 8 50 — — 15 44 24 10 34 — — — — 16 — 1 100 33 11 NISP 1 33 — — 1 33 3 — — — — 3 8 8 — 3 — 1 — Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 251 33 25 13 25 2 4 — 15 — 13 27 7 13 40 11 1 11 — 3 2 2 22 — 42 32 2 22 — 29 22 3 33 2 20 15 100 9 2 130 — — — Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 37. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 650, Block 252, Lot 13 Common Name Stratum IIa–b NISP % Stratum IIIa–c NISP Copper rockfish — — Pacific mackerel — 3 Bony fish — Mud and musk turtles % Stratum V NISP Stratum VI % NISP Stratum VIIa–g % NISP % Stratum VIIIa–e Stratum IXa–b NISP % NISP 14 — % Stratum Xa–b NISP % Total NISP % — 12 2 — — 3 <1 — — 15 2 — — — 1 <1 — — — — 30 4 — — 1 <1 — — — 12 — — — — — — — — 15 — — — — 1 Domestic chicken — 3 Gambel’s quail — — 1 — — — Turkey-sized bird — — 1 — — 1 1 2 6 — 4 1 Chicken-sized bird — 4 — 1 1 4 11 — 28 4 Quail- or dove-sized bird — — — 8 1 Songbird-sized — 1 — 9 1 Bird, size indeterminate — Grasshopper mouse 3 3 3 21 23 6 3 13 8 4 — — — — — — — — 8 — 1 — — — — — 1 <1 — — — — 1 — — — 1 <1 Squirrel-sized mammal — — — — — — — 1 <1 Rabbit or hare — — — 2 Cottontail — — — Black-tailed jackrabbit — — 2 Rabbit-sized mammal — 1 5 Carnivore — — — Dog- or bobcat-sized mammal — — 6 Domestic cat — — Pig — 1 Cow 1 3 Sheep/goat — — Cow-sized mammal — 38 40 114 54 2 Sheep/goat-sized mammal — 5 5 43 20 Mammal, size indeterminate — 37 39 1 Unidentifiable — — 1 Total 1 96 210 93 — 21 — 17 Eggshell 100 4 6 1 14 <1 17 1 1 4 2 — — — 6 1 — 17 7 — — — 17 2 1 — — — — — 2 <1 2 — 29 12 — — — 35 5 — 62 27 9 10 — — 71 9 3 — 32 14 6 7 — — 44 6 6 3 — 4 2 2 2 — — 12 2 1 5 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 7 — 19 3 3 4 2 11 12 — 19 3 2 <1 175 23 145 19 1 — 2 <1 22 — 19 — — — — 1 1 <1 — 2 11 5 7 8 3 8 — 13 14 62 27 15 17 5 14 2 29 31 5 2 8 9 7 19 — 87 12 3 1 — — — 4 1 234 79 36 — 3 752 — 6 — — Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 252 33 66 Chapter 11 • Block 252, Lots 11, 12, and 13 Table 38. Faunal Remains from Block 252, Lot 13 Feature 685 Common Name Feature 10655 Total NISP % NISP % Dabbling ducks and teals 1 2 — 2.25 1 0.74 Domestic chicken — 3 3.37 2 2.20 Wild or domestic turkey — 1 1.12 1 0.74 Gambel’s quail — 3 3.37 3 2.21 Chicken-sized bird 2 15 16.85 17 12.50 Quail- or dove-sized bird — 3 3.37 3 2.21 Black-tailed jackrabbit 2 2 1.47 Pig — 1 1.12 1 0.74 Sheep/goat — 1 1.12 1 0.74 Cow 1 2 9 10.11 10 7.35 25 53 45 50.56 70 51.47 Sheep/goat-sized mammal 7 15 7 7.87 14 10.29 Mammal, size indeterminate 9 19 1 1.12 10 7.35 Cow-sized mammal Total Eggshell 4 4 NISP — 47 89 135 14 2 16 % Note: Does not include Features 642, 649, and 650. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. Table 39. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Refuse Deposit 642, Block 252, Lot 13 Stratum III Common Name Stratum IV MNI NISP Wt. (g) Wt. (%) MNI NISP Eastern oyster 1 1 28.9 100.0 — — Pacific littleneck clam — — 1 Total 1 1 0.15 0.15 Total density (per cubic foot) 28.9 100.0 4.33 Wt. (g) Wt. (%) 2 2.2 100.0 1 2 2.2 100.0 0.22 0.44 0.48 Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. 253 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 40. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Basement 685, Block 252, Lot 13 Common Name MNI NISP Wt. (g) Barnacle 1 1 0.9 0.5 California venus 1 1 3.4 1.9 Pismo clam 1 4 6.0 3.3 Thin-shell littleneck clam 1 1 1.8 1.0 Unidentifiable 1 1 2.9 1.6 California mussel 1 2 17.1 9.4 Pacific giant oyster 1 1 21.7 11.9 Unidentifiable 1 1 2.4 1.3 Pacific calico scallop 1 7 16.0 8.8 Speckled scallop 1 5 10.2 5.6 Pacific jewelbox 1 3 58.0 31.8 Unidentifiable 1 1 1.0 0.5 Atlantic slipper shell 5 5 17.2 9.4 Marine nacre 1 12 23.9 13.1 18 45 182.5 100.0 Total Total density (per cubic foot) 0.33 0.33 4.95 Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. 254 Wt. (%) C hapter  1 2 Block 253 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, and Tamara L. Leher Commercial History: “Cor. Miltenberg, Grossetta, Toole,” 79 Toole Block 253 was a small triangle of land located between Miltenberg Street, Grossetta Avenue, and Toole Avenue (see Figure 1). It was first sold by the city during the 1889 land auction to Eleanor Geist, but it soon reverted to the county in a tax sale. It was not sold again until 1897, when Eleanor Geist reacquired it. Four years later the title passed to Benjamin Fairbanks (see Chapter 16). Fairbanks lived in the project area and, over time, owned five lots in the project area in addition to Block 253. It is likely that his ownership of Block 253—as with Block 252, Lot 1—was speculative. Regardless of his motives, in 1901, shortly after purchasing Block 253, Benjamin Fairbanks died in a buggy accident reported to have been caused by shoddy streetcar maintenance (ADS, 9 April 1901:1). His wife survived the mishap and a little over a year later sold the property to Mose Drachman. Drachman and a group of partners purchased the property to start the Troy Laundry Company. Unfortunately, the laundry was destroyed by fire shortly after it was constructed; the 1904 Sanborn map records the building as the “Ruins of Fire/Formerly/Troy/Laundry” (see Figure 2). In late 1903, the ruins were sold to R. E. Stephens, proprietor of the Tucson Steam Laundry. Whatever plans he may have had for the new property never materialized, and he soon sold it to the Seattle Brewing and Malting Company (see Commercial Enterprises). The Seattle Brewing and Malting Company rehabilitated the burned building in 1904 and spent the next 12 years operating it as a bottling plant for beer and other alcohol (see Figure 3). The operation ended after statewide prohibition began in 1915 (State of Arizona 1914). By 1916, the bottling works had been converted back into a laundry. The City Laundry Company (see Commercial Enterprises) operated on the block for the next 42 years, although it did not buy the property until 1924 (see Figures 4–6). The laundry building was remodeled several times between 1916 and 1930. By then, the main building and all of the outbuildings were incorporated into a single structure, which occupied the entirety of Block 253 (see Architectural Descriptions: Building K). Although the business address was listed simply as ‘Cor. Miltenberg, Grossetta, Toole’ in the city directories until 1944, the Sanborn maps labeled the building with between three and seven addresses in various years (1904–1949). After 1944, the building was designated with the address 79 Toole Avenue, which it retained until it was razed in 1958. The building was not replaced, and the property became a parking lot. Several archaeological features associated with commercial use of Block 253 were identified. These included the foundations, basement, and other features described in the discussion of Building K. There were also 11 pits (Features 31786, 31787, 31788, 31789, 31790, 31791, 31792, 31795, 31799, 31802, and 31803) of unknown function; some were possibly postholes (Figure 73). Another 3 pits (Features 31783, 31784, and 31785) contained large amounts of burned refuse and debris that may have represented a cleanup effort after the fire that destroyed the Troy Laundry. Biographies Fairbanks For a biography of Benjamin Fairbanks, see Chapter 16. 255 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Drachman Mose Drachman’s father, Philip Drachman, fled Russian Poland at the age of 16 to avoid conscription into the Russian army. Philip’s parents had hidden him under the floor for several months before sending him and his brother to England and then on to the United States. (By coincidence, the Drachman brothers traveled to the United States on the same ship as another family who became important in southern Arizona, the Goldwaters, who left Poland for the same reason [ASBH BVS 1929c; Chanin 1992]). Philip became a naturalized citizen in 1860 in San Bernardino, California, and was in the California River area of Arizona by 1864, by which time he was a merchant. In 1870, he ran a store in Tucson with partner Isaac Goldberg. Philip traveled to New York City to find a Jewish bride. There he found United States-born Rosa Katzenstein. They were married in 1868 and returned to Tucson, a journey that in prerailroad times involved travel to Panama, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Bernardino before beginning the trek to Tucson (Chanin 1992). The two eventually had 10 children. Accounts differ as to whether Mose was born in San Francisco, California (ASBH BVS 1935b), or in Arizona in 1870 (Taylor 1944). He married Ethel Edmunds who taught dance in Tucson (Taylor 1944), and the couple reportedly relocated temporarily to Phoenix to avoid the displeasure of his family over marrying a non-Jewish girl (Chanin 1992). They returned to Tucson, where Mose set up a laundry, became an Arizona real-estate speculator and a sales agent for Arbuckle Coffee for the Arizona and New Mexico territories. Mose was a model salesman, and the Specialty Coffee Association of American has recently named the Mose Drachman Sales & Service Award in his honor (Specialty Coffee Association of America 2005). Among his local roles were member of Tucson Chamber of Commerce; Tucson City Councilman (1896–1897); member of Board of Territorial Equalization (1896–1897); and clerk of the federal court of Arizona (1919). Ethel set up a boardinghouse to supplement their income and to occasionally tide the family over in financial downturns when Mose’s money-making schemes failed to pay off, as was immortalized in two of his daughter Rosemary’s books; Chicken Every Sunday: My Life with Mother’s Boarders (1943), and Ridin’ the Rainbow: My Father’s Life in Tucson (1944). Mose died in Tucson in 1935; his wife outlived him by about a decade and passed away in 1946 (ASBH BVS 1933b; 1935b; ASDH DVS 1946). Commercial Enterprises Seattle Brewing and Malting Company In February 1904, the Seattle Brewing and Malting Company, distributor of Rainier Beer, bought the ruins of Mose Drachman’s Troy Laundry on Block 253. By 1906, the Rainier Beer Bottling Works was in operation at this location, where it stayed until 1916. A stable shown on Sanborn maps during this time indicates the company probably used draft animals to deliver their product (Sanborn 1909, 1914, 1919). By 1908, the factory had been renamed the Henry Till Bottling Works, after a man who had worked as an agent of the company between 1906 and 1908 while living at 57 Miltenberg Street in the project area. In 1910, Adolph Meyer became the proprietor and part owner of the bottling works while living in the project area at 77 Miltenberg Street, but he died of tuberculosis in the same year (ATBH BVS 1910a). In the 1912 city directory, Adolph Bail was listed as president of the company. The two Adolphs had been business partners in other ventures (O’Mack 2005), and a metal bottle cap reading “ADOLF BAIL/XXX/TUCSON ARIZONA” was recovered from Stratum I of Privy Pit 734 on Block 255, Lot 1. Henry Till does not appear in city directories after 1910, but the business continued to operate under his name until 1913. After that, the business was renamed Robinson and Company, after William T. Robinson, who had been secretary of the Henry Till Company the year prior. Robinson also lived in the project area between 1912 and 1914, in the same house Henry Till had occupied at 57 Miltenberg Street. A 1934 death certificate was found for William T. Robinson of Tucson (ASBH BVS 1934), but William Robinson is a common name and it is not certain that this was the same individual. This man was born in England in 1877 and was a retired cattleman. Through the various names, presidents, and managers, the property continued under the ownership of the Seattle Brewing and Malting Company until 1924. In 1916, however, the bottling works was replaced by the City Laundry Company, which eventually bought the property. Statewide prohibition had taken effect in Arizona starting in 1915 (State of Arizona 1914), and drove local alcohol-distribution centers out of business. 256 Chapter 12 • Block 253 The City Laundry The City Laundry was one of the longest-lived businesses in the project area, having taken over Block 253 nearly a decade before the neighborhood began to be predominated by commercial buildings (Figure 74). Initially, the building remained unchanged from its configuration while it was a bottling works (Sanborn 1919). The same outbuildings remained east of the main structure and may have continued in use for the housing of delivery vehicles and/or draft animals, as it is probable that the laundry took orders from large clients such as hotels. The company expanded the buildings many times during its tenure. Several of these expansion stages can be observed in Sanborn fire insurance maps and historical photographs (see Architectural Descriptions). By 1922, the building had been remodeled, the stable was connected to the main building and designated as storage space, and an area for office space was added between the old stable and the main building (Sanborn 1922). If the laundry still made deliveries or pickups, they likely used gas-powered vehicles by this time, and a stable was no longer needed. Within 8 years, the structure had expanded considerably, taking up nearly all of Block 253 (Sanborn 1930). The laundry had also annexed two lots directly across Miltenberg Street, just outside the project area. By 1947, the annex building had expanded considerably to occupy most of those lots, as well as much of two lots to the south, also off the project area (Sanborn 1947). Several outbuildings and additions were in this annexed area, and the unused southern lot space was taken over as parking. Over the next 10 years (Sanborn 1949, 1952, and 1957), no significant modifications to the building appeared to have taken place. According to Tucson city directories, the laundry was in operation as late as 1958. However, by 1960, the laundry and all of its subsidiary buildings had been razed and the lots left vacant (Sanborn 1960). The footprint of the building, including the original structure taken over from the bottling works, was still visible during archaeological investigations. During its operation, City Laundry employed several people who lived nearby in the project area. In 1936, employee Arnold Ybarra lived at 59 Miltenberg Street. Nearly 10 years later, a woman named Florence Shoffner lived at the same address while working for the laundry between 1944 and 1946. Architectural Descriptions 79 Miltenberg Street, Troy Laundry/Seattle Brewing and Malting/City Laundry (Building K) This building was constructed at the northeast corner of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue sometime around 1902. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1904–1957) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, and 37]; see Figures 13–17, and 74). Within 2 years, it had been destroyed by fire. The original one-story building was rectangular in plan with an additional room block on the north end. Constructed of brick, the walls were 1 foot thick. The north room was constructed of metal-clad concrete brick. After the fire, only the walls remained. Between 1905 and 1909, the building was reconstructed on the same footprint using the original walls. The building had decorative embellishments but did not conform to an architectural style. Oriented south to north, the one-story brick commercial building had 1-foot-thick walls with one exception; the north wall of the north room was only 8 inches thick. Roof heights on the primary building measured 14–18 feet, and the roof height on the north room measured 10 feet. The wood-framed trussed roof of the primary building was clad in a composite material and likely consisted of three low-pitched gables or barrels with a surrounding parapet. A clerestory and ventilating structure were located on the westerly roof. The parapet of the north, west, and south walls of the primary building extended at least 48 inches above the roofline, serving as a firewall. The parapet copings exhibited decorative brickwork: the south (front) facade had a curvilinear and sculptured parapeted gable with scroll molding, and the north (rear) facade of the main building had a stepped parapeted gable. The north room had a 1-foot-high parapet above its roofline and housed a 40-foot-high iron chimney. The west facade appeared to have at least seven windows, and the front (south) facade was symmetrical with two sets of paired windows. Primary entrances were located on the east and north facades. A wood-framed veranda with a wood-shingled roof was located on the southwest corner of the building at 257 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest the intersection of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue. An additional wood-framed porch with a woodshingled roof was located on the east side of the building. Functioning as a bottling works, the building operated on steam and electric power, and it was presumably connected to the water system as well. Two rooms in the southern end of the primary building functioned as a cold storage and an office. When the function of the building changed from a bottling works to a laundry, between 1915 and 1916 (TCD 1914, 1917), the building used water, as well as gas, electric, and steam power. Electricity and steam were used for washing, and coal irons were used for ironing. All roofs were reclad in a composite material, and a round louvered gable vent was located in the southern gable end. An additional primary opening was created on the north facade of the north room, and the room had at least one window on its west facade. The front corner veranda was removed, and the company name was painted on the south facade. On the interior, the cold-storage room was made into a receiving room, and the office became a distributing room. Between 1920 and 1922, the laundry complex was again remodeled. It was connected to the former stable (see following description) with a newly constructed one-story room block used for office space and addressed 80 Miltenberg Street. The iron chimney at the rear of the complex was removed. The once-detached building became storage space at the two-story eastern end (94 Miltenberg Street). An iron chimney measuring 40 feet above the roofline was installed in the one-story western end (86 Miltenberg Street). The receiving room function was removed from the southern part of building and placed in the north room. Between 1923 and 1930, the complex was remodeled for a third time, as the building was expanded to the edges of its triangular block. After the expansion, the complex had varying roof, wall, and parapet heights. The northwest and southeast triangular corners were raised to 2 stories in height, with roof heights of 30 feet. An additional iron chimney was installed adjacent to the already existing chimney. The wood truss roof was redesigned to flow across the one-story portion of the building and was supported by steel columns. The floor consisted of poured concrete, with the exception of the room with the chimneys, which had an earthen floor. Additional windows were installed on all facades, unifying the exterior appearance of the complex. The function of the two-story eastern end of the building was changed to office space. The building was demolished between 1958 and 1960. Corner of Miltenberg Street and Toole Avenue, Commercial Stable/Storage (Building K) This building consisted of two rectangular room blocks constructed between 1905 and 1909 as part of the bottling works complex (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 6, 18, 22, 23, 25, and 29]; see Figures 13, 16, 17, and 74) (Sanborn 1909–1957). Oriented south to north, the easterly room block was 2 stories with a 24foot roof height, and the westerly room block was 1 story with a 16 foot roof height. Constructed of brick, the walls were 1 foot thick, with one exception: the westerly room block may have had a wood-framed north wall. The moderately pitched, wood-framed gable roof of the easterly room block and the flat roof of the westerly room block were sheathed in composition material. The easterly room block had a wood-framed cornice on the east façade, and the parapet of the north and south walls extended at least 48 inches above the roofline, serving as a firewall. The parapet copings exhibited decorative brickwork with curvilinear and sculptured parapeted gables. Two windows were centered, one above the other, on the south facade of the easterly room block, which was identified as a stable. When the laundry complex was remodeled between 1920 and 1922, this building was connected to the larger building at 76–100 Miltenberg Street with a newly constructed one-story room block used for office space addressed as 80 Miltenberg Street (see previous description). 258 Chapter 12 • Block 253 Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building K (79 Miltenberg, Troy Laundry/Seattle Brewing and Malting/City Laundry) Building K was composed of seven structural elements: four foundation sections, a basement, a complex of interconnected pipe trenches, and a concrete slab. The footprint had an overall surface area of approximately 107 by 105 feet. All of the foundations were constructed of mortar and basalt blocks and probably represented at least two building episodes. They measured between 2 and 3.5 feet in width and sat on compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The two oldest foundations (Features 31800 and 31801) formed a north-southoriented rectangle measuring 72 feet long and 41.5 feet wide. This was consistent with the original building depicted on this lot on the 1909 Sanborn map. The interior of the building, as represented by the foundation, had two long rooms equal to half the width of the building and ran its entire length. One doorway connected the rooms near the structure’s southern end. A second doorway, allowing access from outside of the building, was located in the middle of the eastern exterior wall. The other two foundations (Features 31793 and 31794) probably represented at least one addition to the building. A small T-shaped element (Foundation 31793), located northwest of the area formed by Foundations 31800 and 31801, measured 11.5 feet long. The stem of the T ran south 12.5 feet, at which point it would have connected to the earlier foundation had it been extant at that location. Foundation 31794 extended north 25 feet from Foundation 31793 along Grossetta Avenue, until it intersected Toole Avenue. From the intersection of Grossetta Avenue and Toole Avenue, the foundation ran southeast at least 115 feet along Toole Avenue. A photograph from the late 1930s (see Appendix B [Photo Index No. 18]) shows this wall continuing all the way to the Toole Avenue/Council Street intersection. Basement 31796 was discovered near the intersection of Council Street and Toole Avenue. This feature was triangular and probably related to the second construction episode. It measured approximately 19 by 17.5 feet. The basement was filled with burned materials, including a large number of bricks, and it was explored mechanically. The west corner of the basement connected to a system of pipe trenches (Feature 31797), which extended west from that juncture. The longest section of the extant trench was about 16 feet long and ended between the original foundation and the basement. The pipes also connected to a metal tank located on or near a rebar-reinforced concrete pad (Feature 31798), which was oriented north-south and measured 7 by 4 feet. The feature was located along Council Street in line with the south wall of Foundation 31801. The footprint of Building K covered five pits (Features 31784, 31785, 31792, 31795, and 31799), eight postholes (Features 31786–31791, 31802, and 31803), and a refuse pit (Feature 31783). Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Archaeological features in Block 253 yielded no artifacts from the following categories: ceramic tablewares, glass and metal tablewares, food and beverage containers, liquor containers, medicine-related artifacts, clothing or clothing fasteners, footwear, personal items, recreation, smoking paraphernalia, communication, weaponry, commerce, transportation, construction/hardware, and household, nor did they yield faunal or macrobotanical remains. It is somewhat surprising that no artifacts were identified relating to the bottling or laundry activities that took place on the lot for 10 and 43 years, respectively. One possible explanation is that the lot was overexcavated when the buildings were razed. 259 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Chronology, Correlation, and Summary No artifacts were recovered during excavations on Block 253. The lot never contained a residence, so the lack of domestic artifacts was expected. The commercial structure that occupied this lot eventually expanded to cover the entire ground surface, so a paucity of commercial-period artifacts was similarly expected. One feature that likely related to the City Laundry was a concrete pad (Feature 31798) that once held a metal tank. Five pits of unknown function, eight postholes, and one refuse pit were identified beneath the later portion of the building. These likely dated to activities carried out during the early commercial period, when the building occupied only the southwest corner of the lot. The postholes might have represented the position of an awning, billboard, or fence. Burned bricks and other construction debris were found in Basement 31796. We know that the Troy Laundry building remained standing after the 1904 fire; the Seattle Brewing and Malting Company was later able to rehabilitate and repurpose the building. Basement 31796 was part of later construction by that business or the City Laundry Company. It is possible that a portion of the original building was demolished during the commercial period and used to level the basement, or the construction debris may have dated to the final demolition between 1958 and 1960. 260 Figure 73. Block 253 including Grossetta Avenue and Council Street and their intersection. Chapter 12 • Block 253 261 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 74. City Laundry Company, Block 253, Lot 1 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, PC183_B1_J1). 262 C hapter  1 3 Block 254, Lot 1 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 220 N. Stone Avenue, 223 N. Stone Avenue Lot 1 of Block 254, at the southeast corner of Stone Avenue and Miltenberg Street, was purchased from the Tucson School Trustees in 1890 by John Martin (Figure 75). Martin sold it to José M. Mariscal (see Chapter 15) the next year, and it was probably Mariscal who built the house that stood at 223 N. Stone Avenue (see Figure 10). In any case, the house was complete by 1892, and in 1893, Mariscal applied for a homestead of this lot, as well as Lots 4 and 5 of the same block, likely under the Arizona Homestead and Homestead Exemption Statute (A.R.S. 33-1101 et seq.). Records indicate that Refugio Mariscal filed for a homestead on this lot around the same time as José Mariscal, although the claim was abandoned 1 year later. Refugio’s last name was listed as Corrales when the claim was abandoned (O’Quinn Title and Abstract Company n.d.). Multiple individuals were found for both José Mariscal and Refugio Mariscal and it is difficult to untangle the relationship—if one existed—between the two Mariscals who owned property in the project area. Because of the lack of city directories for the early 1890s, we do not know whether José Mariscal lived in the house at 223 N. Stone Avenue. However, it is likely that Marcus Aurelius Smith (see Biographies) was living at this address starting around 1896, when he moved to Tucson. Smith purchased the property in 1898 and owned it for the next 23 years. Soon after taking up residence, Smith made several additions to the original house, transforming a relatively modest dwelling of around 1,500 square feet into the imposing edifice seen in Figure 76, with over twice the square footage. Despite this grand remodeling, Smith may only have resided in this house until sometime around 1905. Between 1905 and 1912, his address was given first as the Santa Rita Hotel and later as the Old Pueblo Club. Smith was a delegate to Congress in the early 1900s and served as a U.S. Senator from statehood until 1920. Consequently, he was out of town frequently and chose to rent out his property in the project area. By 1914, 223 N. Stone Avenue was being rented to Edgar Colglazier. Colglazier was the secretary and manager of the Tucson Ice and Cold Storage Company, which was located along Toole Avenue just north of the project area. In later years, Colglazier evidently became a real-estate broker, or so suggests his death certificate (ASDH DVS 1953b). He occupied the residence until 1921, when Marcus Smith sold the property. Sometime around 1915, the address of the structure changed to 220 N. Stone Avenue. In 1921, the property was purchased by the Pythian Castle Hall Building Association, belonging to the Knights of Pythias, a fraternal order dedicated to promoting peace and goodwill (Supreme Lodge Knights of Pythias 2008). Aside from ownership of the property, there is no other evidence that the organization used the structure for official purposes. Instead, it seems to have continued operation as a rental property, housing five tenants over the next 6 years, including a railroad employee and his family, a merchant, and an electrical engineer, who appears to have operated his home business out of that address (see Appendix D). It is possible the structure served dual purposes, also functioning as the Pythian Castle Hall, although there is no evidence to support this. The organization is only listed in the Tucson city directories once between 1920 and 1930; in the year 1923, the Knights of Pythias were holding meetings in the Odd Fellows Hall at 135 S. Sixth Avenue. In 1928, the Pythian Castle Hall Building Association leased the property to S. H. Bowyer et al. This transfer marked the end of the residential period for the lot. Shortly after the lease was signed, the address disappeared from the Tucson city directories, suggesting that the building had been razed. Unfortunately, as will be discussed, no remains from the residential period were recovered during this investigation—the result of the subsequent commercial developments on the property. 263 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Commercial History: 208, 210, and 220 N. Stone Avenue Bowyer Motors, which was located across Miltenberg Street at 240 N. Stone Avenue did not develop Block 254, Lot 1, right away; instead, they used it for the used-car division of its main location during the first part of the 1930s. By 1935, a service station had been built on the lot. It remained at this location until 1950, although proprietorship was variable. J. D. Sutton, General Petroleum, Fred Tregaskes, and Standard Oil each took turns operating the station at the corner of Stone Avenue and Miltenberg Street. Bowyer Motors took over the facility again in 1946, but by 1950, the property had been turned into a parking lot. Finally in 1952, Durazzo’s Union Oil Company took possession of the property and built a new service-station facility. The street address was changed to 210 N. Stone Avenue (Figure 77), although it changed back to 220 N. Stone Avenue in 1955. Durazzo’s tenancy was short-lived (see Commercial Enterprises). Only 1 year after it moved into the project area, in 1953, the Tucson Newspapers building at 208 N. Stone Avenue was expanded north to include all of Lot 1 (Figure 78) (see Commercial Enterprises). Tucson Newspapers also expanded its basement onto the new lot, to make space for the printing presses. The excavations for this two-story basement removed all remains of earlier activities. The Tucson Newspapers building occupied the lot from around 1953 until it was demolished 20 years later, after which the property served as a parking lot until the beginning of this investigation. Only two features on Lot 1 represented use of the property by Tucson Newspapers, the basement and the ink vault (Features 10235 and 28102); both are discussed below in the description of Building I. In addition, there was a single water main and a utility vault, located along the rear of the property and continuing into the alleyway (Features 630 and 10220). Biographies Mariscal For a biography of José Mariscal, see Chapter 15. Smith Marcus Aurelius Smith (Figure 79) bought Lot 1 of Block 254 from José Mariscal in 1898. Smith lived in the residential structure on that lot (223 N. Stone Avenue) by 1899 but had vacated it by 1905. Thereafter, Smith is listed in Tucson city directories as residing either at the Santa Rita Hotel or the Old Pueblo Club. However, he continued to own the property until 1921 and listed his address there in the 1910 Federal Census. This disparity may be explained by Smith’s political career, which no doubt required him to have a permanent residence in Arizona but also required that he travel frequently. It seems, however, that after 1905, he was operating the building as a rental property; other residents are listed at 223 N. Stone Avenue at this time. Smith was born in 1851 in Cynthiana, Kentucky (Chapman Publishing Company 1901; Goff 1989). He attended Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky, between 1868 and 1872. In 1876, he graduated law school and began practicing in Lexington, where he eventually held the office of prosecuting attorney. In 1879, he relocated to San Francisco to continue his practice, and around 1880, he moved to Tombstone, where he was one of the first attorneys to practice in the newly formed County of Cochise (Goff 1989). Records indicate that Smith’s firm was the one retained by Joseph “Ike” Clanton in the prosecution of Wyatt Earp and his brothers, as well as John “Doc” Holliday, for the murder of William Clanton and the McLowerys (Smith and Lisle 1877–1883) in the famed gunfight at the O.K. Corral. In 1882, Smith was elected Cochise County attorney and served between 1883 and 1885 (Chapman Publishing Company 1901; Goff 1989). In 1886, Smith was elected on the Democratic ticket to represent the Arizona Territory in the 50th U.S. Congress (Chapman Publishing Company 1901; Goff 1989). This launched a 34-year political career that, with only a few interruptions, would end with Smith as one of Arizona’s first two Senators. It was during 264 Chapter 13 • Block 254, Lot 1 his time in Tombstone that Smith met his wife, Elizabeth. She was born in California in 1863 and came to Arizona with her father during the Cochise County silver boom (Goff 1989). In 1896, probably in deference to Marcus’s political career, the couple moved to Tucson, where they lived while Smith was not occupied in Washington, D.C. However, Smith would not purchase his project area holding until 1898. Although a nonvoting representative, Smith’s career as the Arizona delegate to Congress was enthusiastic (Smith 1898, 1902, 1906, 1913, and 1917). He was from Kentucky and spent most of his free time there, which earned him criticism from his opponents in Arizona (Goff 1989). However, he knew his constituency and promoted issues important to the voters of his state, including water allocations and the disposition of federal land within the territory, especially land attached to Indian reservations. To ensure support for future elections in the growing county of Maricopa, he even went so far as to purchase the Arizona Gazette, which was published in Phoenix. Unfortunately, his wife’s health, which had been fragile for some years, worsened in October of 1899 and she died. After taking time off from his political career to spend time with her, Smith decided to seek his party nomination in the next election. Smith had retained his popularity, but the Democratic incumbent was also well liked. The split opinion was acrimonious, leading to a riot at the 1900 Arizona Democratic Convention. The division was resolved by splitting the convention into two factions and each nominated its own candidate (Goff 1989). Despite this complication, however, Smith again won his seat. Starting in 1890, Smith launched his 22-year campaign for Arizona statehood. Between November 2, 1889, and July 10, 1890, six new states had been admitted into the Union, leaving only Utah, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona short of this status within the continental United States (Goff 1989). Arizona had by this point already been rejected for statehood at least once, because of its heavily Democratic leanings and a Congress dominated by Republicans. Attaining statehood for Arizona became Smith’s mission, and between 1890 and 1912, he personally presented no fewer than six proposals to that effect, two of which passed through the House but not the Senate (Goff 1989). In addition, he authored many speeches and manuscripts supporting the cause (Smith 1902, 1906; U.S. Congress 1892). He even participated in an extra-legal constitutional convention called by the Territorial government in 1891, after Congress failed to pass the enabling act necessary to draft the document (Goff 1989). In one incident, in which he fought the proposal to lump Arizona and New Mexico into a single state, Delegate Smith was said to have delivered the most effective 1-minute speech ever heard in a deliberative body (Goff 1989:56). All his efforts bore fruit on February 14, 1912. When the big day finally came, Marcus Aurelius Smith was one of the two men sent to Washington as Arizona’s first senators. As a delegate to Congress, Smith had only suffered four interruptions in his career. He had not run for reelection in either 1894 or 1898 because of his wife’s health (Goff 1989). He also opted out of the 1902 election, after collapsing on the Senate floor following a speech. He was defeated in 1908 by Ralph H. Cameron, during the last election before Arizona adopted the direct primary, but he was elected again in the next campaign. During these periods of political dormancy, Smith usually returned to his private law practice, either in Tombstone or Tucson, and also served as an assistant U.S. attorney. As a Senator, Smith diverged from his constituency on more issues than he had in the past. He had long opposed women’s suffrage and was forced to remain quiet on the national issue after Arizonans gave women the vote in November 1912 (Goff 1989). He also supported ratification of the Versailles Treaty and entry into the League of Nations, although the latter was unpopular in his state. Nevertheless, he was reelected for a 6-year term starting in 1915, during which he supported a $37,000 expenditure to study the mating and feeding habits of ostriches. This was reportedly in response to recent efforts in Arizona to create a domestic supply of their feathers, which were annually imported from other countries. There was at that time a great demand for ostrich feathers for ladies’ hats (Lester 1956:220; Stein 2008). Nor was this the last time Smith felt compelled to support avian-inspired legislation. In 1918, he was the floor leader in the ratification of the Migratory Bird Treaty, which “prohibited” the extinction of egrets (Goff 1989:74). Senator Smith’s congressional career came to an end when he lost the election of 1920 to Ralph Cameron, the man who had defeated him in 1908. He stayed on in Washington, selling his property within the project area and accepting an appointment to the Joint Boundary Commission, which governed water usage along the borderlands between the United States and Canada (Goff 1989). Smith died 4 years later, on April 7, 1924, having spent many of his final years with severe arthritis and a lame hip, and he was buried in the city of his birth. Socially, he was a Mason and an Elk, but he does not appear to have had the long list of fraternal affiliations common to many of the successful businessmen and politicians of Tucson during this time (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). 265 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Commercial Enterprises Bowyer Motor Company For an account of the Bowyer Motor Company, see Chapter 10. Durazzo’s Union Oil 76 Station For an account of Durazzo’s Union 76, see Chapter 15. Tucson Newspapers, Inc. In 1940, the Tucson Citizen and the Arizona Daily Star, the two major newspapers of Tucson as well as staunch editorial rivals, entered into a joint operating agreement (Tucson Newspapers 2005). This resulted in the combination of business operations for both newspapers and the formation of Tucson Newspapers, Inc. The new company then constructed a building at 208 N. Stone Avenue on Lot 2 of Block 254, digging a deep basement to house the printing presses. In 1953, the company rented space to an advertising firm and began construction of an addition to the building, in Lot 1 of Block 254, complete with a 2-story basement (see Figure 78). This pushed Durazzo’s filling station, which had previously occupied the space, into Lots 4 and 5 across the street. The expansion of the basement led to the discovery of a large number of burials (TC, 9 July 1953) from the cemetery that had previously been located on the project area (see Volume 2, Chapter 4). Between 1962 and 1963, Tucson Newspapers rented space in the expanded building to the Selective Service System but remained at the location itself for another 10 years. In 1962, a spokesman for the company reported in the Tucson Citizen that, although the company had no immediate plans to move, it had decided to prepare for the eventuality by acquiring a new site for its building. “Downtown property is becoming too valuable for a manufacturing plant,” he claimed, and “traffic is becoming too congested for efficient distribution” (TC, 29 December 1962). At the time of the article’s printing, Tucson Newspapers reportedly owned all of the land between Alameda Street, Council Street, Stone Avenue, and Grossetta Avenue—i.e., all of Block 254. The newspaper moved to its new location in 1973, after which the building in the project area was demolished (O’Mack 2005). During the company’s presence on North Stone Avenue, it employed a number of people living in the project area. These included Joseph E. Simms, a printer at 78 Grossetta Avenue in 1941, and Charles H. Pollard, another printer who resided at 51 Grossetta Avenue in 1957. Some of its employees were present for much longer, such as Ted S. Wallace, a printer, who lived at 48 Grossetta Avenue for a full decade while working for the newspapers between 1942 and 1952. In addition, Gil A. Meynier, a writer, lived at 49 Grossetta Avenue in 1950 and 45 Grossetta Avenue between 1951 and 1953. Architectural Descriptions 220/223 N. Stone Avenue, Marcus Smith (No Building Number) This one-story, single-family dwelling began as a vernacular Spanish Colonial−style building, constructed between 1890 and 1892, and over time, became a very eclectic building, influenced by the exotic Egyptian Revival architectural style. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1901–1922) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 57, 58, 59, and 61]; see Figures 10, 12–14, and 76). Located at the southeast corner of Miltenberg Street and North Stone Avenue, the building was oriented west to east, with the main entrance facing west onto North Stone Avenue. The rear-facing U-shaped building 266 Chapter 13 • Block 254, Lot 1 was constructed of adobe and had an interior court on the east side. The roof consisted of a noncombustible material, and there were at least two interior chimneys. Between 1892 and 1901, a one-story room block was built on the east facade of the north wing. Constructed of brick, it had a wood-framed cornice and a wood-shingled roof. Between 1901 and 1904, three more room blocks were added to the house, making the building H-shaped. The room added to the east facade of the southern wing was constructed of adobe. The other two rooms were symmetrically built on the front of house (west facade) flanking the central entrance. These rooms were constructed of brick with wood-framed cornices and wood-shingled roofs. In the main house, there were openings into each of these two front rooms. The interior court and the new entry created by the front room blocks were roofed with wood shingles. Between 1904 and 1908, the building underwent major changes, and the building’s architectural style was significantly modified. A second story was added along with a low-pitched wood-framed flat-topped hipped roof. The roof was clad in a composite material and had moderately overhanging open eaves. Two interior chimneys with corbelled chimney caps extended above the roofline. The main entrance became a portico-in-antis (recessed portico) framed with an oversized entry surround. The portico-in-antis was accessed by steps, flanked by two bulging columns with lotus capitals that supported the surround. Both horizontal and vertical members of the surround were faced with a plaster motif, and along the top were dentils. Above the main entrance was a loggia with square accouplement columns. Flanking the portico-in-antis was symmetrical first- and second-story fenestration. On the first floor, each wing had a Palladian-motif opening with bulging columns that flanked the central arch. The opening’s exterior sills had dentils. Above, on the second floor, each wing was embellished with three oval openings. 2201/2 N. Stone Avenue, Marcus Smith (No Building Number) This one-story, rectangular-in-plan outbuilding was constructed of adobe between 1890 and 1901 (see Figures 10, 14, and 15) (Sanborn 1901–1930). It had a wood-framed shed roof clad in wood shingles. The front facade faced north and likely consisted of wooden gates. Between 1905 and 1909, the building was modified and divided into two rooms. The roof was reclad in a composite material, and a 1-foot-high parapet was added. The building remained extant in 1930 but was probably removed prior to the commercialization of the lot later in that decade. 220 N. Stone Avenue, Bowyer Motor Company Service Station (No Building Number) This one-story commercial building was likely constructed of concrete block around 1931 (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 20, 22, and 23]) (Sanborn 1947 and 1949). Rectangular in plan, it had a small room block on the east and a 12-foot-high roofed drive-in on the west. The wood-framed moderately pitched, gabled roof was sheathed in a noncombustible material. The building fronted North Stone Avenue and was a gas and oil station. The structure was demolished between 1947 and 1949. 2201/2 N. Stone Avenue, Truck Repair (No Building Number) This commercial complex was constructed between 1931 and 1947 and included three one-story, rectangular buildings (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 20, 22, 23, 25, and 62]; see Figures 15, 16, and 77) (Sanborn 1947–1952). The largest was on the eastern portion of the lot. Constructed mostly out of metal frame, it had a concrete floor, and a southern wall of brick. Its flat roof was sheathed in a noncombustible material, with a stovepipe extending above the roofline. It had 8-inch-thick walls, and it served as a truck repair shop. The next building to the west was a small building with a roof sheathed in a noncombustible material. The most westerly building was a roofed structure for greasing. It had no chimney, and its roof was clad in a noncombustible material. Between 1947 and 1949, the two westerly buildings were removed. 267 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 210 N. Stone Avenue, Durazzo’s Union Oil 76 (No Building Number) This one-story commercial building was constructed around 1952, formed of two adjacent rectangular-in-plan room blocks (see Figure 77) (Sanborn 1952). The building was located at the corner of Miltenberg Street and North Stone Avenue, fronted North Stone Avenue, and served as a gas and oil station. The southerly block was constructed of concrete block. It had 8-inch-thick walls and a 10-foot roof height. Its flat wood-framed roof had moderately overhanging eaves on the west facade and was sheathed in a composite material. The main entrance was on the west facade and opened onto two gas pumps. The wood-framed northerly block was clad in metal, likely porcelain enamel. Its flat roof had a narrowly overhanging eave and was clad in a noncombustible material. A service bay faced west, and a band of windows on the north facade provided light into the interior of the bay. 210 N. Stone Avenue, Tucson Newspapers (Building I) (For a further discussion of this building’s history, see 208 N. Stone Avenue, Chapter 14) This nearly rectangular-in-plan building was completed in 1954 and was located at the southeast corner of Miltenberg Street and North Stone Avenue (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 27, 28, 29, 66, and 67]; see Figures 17, 18, and 78) (Sanborn 1957 and 1960). It occupied the entire lot, replacing all structures that had gone before, and was oriented west to east. Fronting North Stone Avenue, the building extended to the alley between North Stone and Grossetta Avenues. This 2- and mostly 3-story commercial building had a basement, and roof heights ranged from 30 to 45 feet. The 2-story portion of the building was located in the southeast corner and had an open first floor. The central portion of the southern exterior wall extended farther south than its flanking walls, connecting it to the adjacent newspaper printing building at 208 N. Stone Avenue. There was a pressroom and underground walkway on the eastern end of the north facade. The building had a reinforced-concrete frame and floors, as well as concrete-block curtain walls and partitions. The steel joist and truss roof was flat and sheathed in gypsum, and the building had 3-foot-high parapets. The walls measured 1 foot thick. Elevators were located in the front and rear portions of the building, which was air-conditioned and had an automatic sprinkler system on the first and third floors. The building was faced with brick on the front facade. Windows were located on all exterior facades. The north facade had three service bays. The building housed newspaper offices and printing departments. Circulation was located on the first floor. Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building I (210 N. Stone Avenue, Tucson Newspapers) The walls of the Building I basement were defined by mechanical stripping, with the exception of its southern extent, which continued beyond the project boundary. Because of the known depth of the basement, it was determined that no graves could have survived its original excavation, and, as a result, Pima County and Statistical Research decided not to excavate within the basement walls. The feature was nearly square, although the sides of the feature had large irregularities. Building I represented the remains of the Tucson Newspapers building first constructed in 1940. The basement pit (Feature 10235) was constructed to house the printing presses. This measured 155 feet east-west by at least 149 feet north-south and was at least 10 feet deep. During the original construction of the basement, numerous graves were removed with the fill of the pit, and others were partially disturbed. An ink vault (Feature 28102) was located in the northeast corner of the basement pit. The vault measured 42 feet long by 9 feet wide and was oriented east-west. The only extant remains of the building above the level of the basement were a rectangular concrete pad (Feature 626) measuring about 7.5 feet long by 5 feet wide, oriented north-south, and a linear concrete-foundation element (Feature 627), which was oriented north-south and measured about 11.5 feet long and 1.5 feet wide. The south half of Foundation 627 sat on top of Concrete Pad 626. 268 Chapter 13 • Block 254, Lot 1 The basement was associated with two other features. The first was a northeast-southwest-oriented fiberoptic line (Feature 10234) that entered the basement pit near its northeast corner. The second was a Works Progress Administration drainage box (Feature 17631), found at the intersection of Council Street and Stone Avenue (see Figure 30), which superimposed the northern edge of the basement with its eastern extension, along the south side of Council Street. This was probably an artifact of the basement expansion of 1953, rather than indicating the order of construction. The drainage box predated the basement and was visible in photographs of this expansion episode (see Figure 78). Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses As discussed above, the two-story-deep basement of the Tucson Newspapers building destroyed all evidence of previous activity, and the basement fill was not archaeologically investigated. No artifacts from the residential period were recovered. Chronology, Correlation, and Summary No archaeological remains of the residential period were extant in Block 254, Lot 1, at the beginning of this investigation. Excavations for the two-story-deep Tucson Newspapers basement in 1953 destroyed all evidence of residential activity and subsequent commercial activities. Only features associated with the newspaper building were identified. These included the basement itself, an ink vault, and underground utilities. Although Block 254, Lot 1, hosted a long and varied set of historical events, virtually no tangible evidence of historical activities remained. It is unfortunate for our understanding of the range of historical activities from the postcemetery period in the project area that the Tucson Newspapers basement was excavated so deeply, effectively erasing all evidence of earlier construction and material culture. The home of Marcus Aurelius Smith was among the largest and most opulent in the project area, and it likely would have yielded important and unique information. 269 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 75. Block 254, Lots 1 and 2. 270 Chapter 13 • Block 254, Lot 1 Figure 76. Marcus Aurelius Smith House, Block 254, Lot 1 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 4221). 271 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 77. Durazzo’s Union 76 Station, 210 N. Stone Avenue, and the Tucson Newspapers Building, 208 N. Stone Avenue, 1953. (© Copyright Tucson Citizen. Reproduced with permission.) 272 Chapter 13 • Block 254, Lot 1 Figure 78. Historical photograph of the excavation for the expansion of Tucson Newspapers Building. (© Copyright Tucson Citizen. Reproduced with permission.) 273 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 79. Marcus Aurelius Smith, who lived at 223 North Stone Avenue from ca. 1899 to 1905 (undated photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. B93362). Smith was one of Arizona's first two U.S. senators, serving 1912–1920. 274 C hapter  1 4 Block 254, Lot 2 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. LevTov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 208 N. Stone Avenue Lot 2 of Block 254 was sold to Herbert Brown by the Tucson School Trustees in 1890. Although he owned the property until 1894, there is no evidence that he developed it. He sold the lot to Herbert Tenney, who promptly sold it to Dr. George Whomes, a local Tucson dentist (ADS, 25 August 1893:4). Dr. Whomes took out a mortgage shortly after purchasing the property, probably indicating that he was constructing the house that would stand at 208 N. Stone Avenue for the next 43 years. The house was completed by 1896 (see Figure 12)—a relatively modest, single-story dwelling that, at around 1,226 square feet, was average in size for the project area. In 1897, Whomes lived at 208 N. Stone Avenue with his wife Adah and two other people who were probably boarders: R. H. Forbes, a professor at the University of Arizona; and C. W. Neece, an employee at Louis Zeckendorf’s department store. In 1900, the couple lived with a Mexican-born servant named Matilda Sturis (spelling uncertain), and a German roomer named William Klug, who worked as a quartz miner. In 1901, they sold the property to H. D. Underwood (see Biographies) and moved off the project area. Underwood only owned the property for a few months, although he lived there in 1902. He sold the property to Annie Sullivan in 1901, who sold it in 1908 to R. Power. Three years later Sullivan and Power entered into an unspecified agreement concerning the property. Then in 1920, Annie Sullivan Wiley—by then married to Joseph L. Wiley (ASDH DVS 1947)—bought the property back from Power using a deed that had been dated in 1908, the same day that she originally sold the property. Meanwhile, Fred and Lupe Blanc lived at 208 N. Stone Avenue from at least 1910 until 1918, often with other members of their family. Fred was occasionally employed in the furniture repair business, and Lupe worked at Albert Steinfeld’s department store, eventually becoming a manager there. Fred was born in Switzerland, Lupe in Mexico. The two had at least one child, Fred, Jr., born in 1902, at which time Fred, Sr., was an upholsterer and living on Church Street (Blanc 1902). Annie Bryan lived at the house between 1919 and 1920, after which it was simultaneously rented by at least five individuals: John Mabarak, William Ellis and Rose Jacob, and George and Mary Corey. These individuals appear to all have been related. Rose Jacob’s maiden name was Corey (possibly Courey or Cary). Rose and William had at least five children, Wallace in 1923, Cecelia in 1926, William Lionel Jacob (Lionel Ellis Jacobs) in 1927, Daniel in 1930, and Masylin in 1933 (ASBH BVS 1923b, 1926b, 1927b, 1930c, and 1933c). William Lionel’s name was registered in a supplementary certificate of birth and it is not clear whether the two names (William Lionel and Lionel Ellis) represented twins. Mabarak and Jacob appear to have been in business together. John Mabarak (Neabarak) was born in Syria and was married to Celia Corey. When their daughter, Mary, was born in 1921, John’s occupation was given as a merchant. Mary was Celia’s second living child (ASBH BVS 1921a). In 1923, they had another daughter, Marta Mabarak, who lived 1 month and 17 days before dying of pneumonia (ASBH BVS 1923c). Another daughter, Josephine, was born in 1928, at which time Celia was said to have four living offspring (ASBH BVS 1928b). Commercial History: 208 N. Stone Avenue In 1926, Annie S. Wiley sold the property to the Union Construction Company. Union Construction appears to have been involved with the State Consolidated Publishing Company, which was later known as Tucson 275 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Newspapers, Inc. At the time of the sale, State Consolidated Publishing entered into a contract with Union Construction, and 4 years later, the property was transferred to the former. Either State Consolidated had made a strategic purchase or construction plans were delayed (perhaps by the Great Depression); the company did not build on the property for another 9 years. In the meantime, the house continued to be used as a rental property (see Appendix D). The occupation history was largely residential in nature, including at least five different tenants, but commercial reuse of the property also began. In the early 1930s, for example, 208 N. Stone Avenue functioned as both home and office for a physician named Thomas Smith. Likewise, in 1936, a film delivery business operated on the premises. By 1940, the residential structure had been torn down and replaced by the Tucson Newspapers building (see Figure 78), which remained until 1973 (see Chapter 13). Because of the construction of a large basement for the Tucson Newspapers building, very little archaeological evidence of the residential period survived. In fact, the only household feature encountered during data recovery was a privy pit (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Privy Pit 10214), along the very eastern edge of the lot. In addition, an alignment of small postholes found along the eastern edge of Stone Avenue (see discussion of this street) was probably related to a wooden curb located in front of the residential structure. There were similarly very few archaeological features associated with the commercial period. These included the basement pit as well as two sections of concrete foundation, as described in the discussion of Building I (see Chapter 13). Landscaping features and one posthole, all found in a north-south alignment west of the curb features on Stone Avenue (see the discussion of this street), probably related to the line of trees planted by Tucson Newspapers, along with a utility pole that can be seen in Figure 17. Biographies Tenney In 1894, Herbert B. Tenney bought Lot 2 of Block 254 from Herbert Brown and sold it to George Whomes the next year. Born in Wisconsin in 1858, Tenney moved to Tucson in 1881 (AHS 1909). He became Pima County Deputy Treasurer and publisher of the Arizona Daily Citizen, positions he held until 1890 (AHS n.d. n). In 1885, he was secretary of the Redington Live Stock Company (Heritage Auction Galleries 2009), and in 1888, he was elected one of the few Republican members of the 15th Arizona Legislature (AHS n.d. n; Wagoner 1970). Tenney attended the 1904 Republican National Convention as a delegate from the Arizona Territory (Heritage Auction Galleries 2009). In 1889, he was appointed cashier to the Consolidated National Bank, where he worked with his stepfather, who was its vice-president (AHS n.d. n). He held the position until his death of “apoplexy” in 1909 (AHS 1909; Tenney 1909). Underwood H. D. Underwood owned Lot 2 of Block 254 only briefly, selling it to Annie Sullivan 3 months after purchase. He was born in 1846 in New York, where he attended St. Lawrence University (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). He fought in the New York Infantry during the Civil War, participating in the sieges of Richmond and Petersburg. Afterward, he worked as a bookkeeper, eventually moving to California. While in San Francisco, he met and married his wife, Annie Hutchinson, who was a native of Massachusetts. In 1881, the Underwood family came to Tucson, where H. D. took a job with L. Zeckendorf & Co., an early predecessor of Albert Steinfeld’s department store (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). He went into the real-estate business in 1883 and founded his own firm, Underwood and Franklin, in 1898. The company engaged in insurance as well as real estate and was also involved in buying, selling, and developing mining claims. It was probably a speculative move on behalf of his company that Underwood purchased and then sold the project area property in 1901. Politically, H. D. Underwood was a Democrat and was elected to the 15th General Assembly of Arizona (Wagoner 1970). He also served as Chief Deputy U.S. Marshal of Arizona between 1885 and 1889. In addition, he was a member of a long list of fraternal organizations. Little archival information was found about Underwood’s life after he sold the project area property. 276 Chapter 14 • Block 254, Lot 2 Commercial Enterprises Tucson Newspapers, Inc. For an account of Tucson Newspapers, Inc., see Chapter 13. Architectural Descriptions 208 N. Stone Avenue, Residential Structure (No Building Number) This one-story, single-family dwelling, built in 1896, was Folk Victorian in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 5, 7, 17, 18, 20, and 31]; see Figures 12–14) (Sanborn 1901–1930). Oriented west to east, the front entrance faced west onto North Stone Avenue. Constructed of brick, it was a modified gable front and wing plan with at least one interior chimney. The moderately pitched roof had a wood-framed cornice with moderately overhanging eaves and was clad with wood shingles. The front had a projecting bay with windows on the north end of the west facade. Adjacent to the south was a wood-framed entry porch with a wood-shingled roof, created by the side gable that flared out over the porch. The rear (east facade) had a wood-framed room block on the north end and a wood-framed porch on the south end, both clad in wood shingles. In addition to the front and side gables, the building had an additional gable at the rear. 208 N. Stone Avenue, Tucson Newspapers (Building I) This building was constructed in 1940 and was nearly rectangular in plan view (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 62, 63, 64, 65, and 66]; see Figures 16, 18, and 78) (Sanborn 1947–1960). Oriented west to east, with fireproof construction, this one- and two-story commercial building had roof heights ranging from 17 to 34 feet. The front of the building, which faced North Stone Avenue, was 2 stories aboveground and had a basement. The building had a concrete frame, floor, and roof with 12-inch-thick brick curtain walls and 4- and 8-inch-thick brick partition walls. The front portion of the north wall projected farther north than the remaining portion of the wall. The flat roof was sheathed in a composite material, had a 2-foot-high parapet, and supported an iron fan housing. The building was air-conditioned. Stairwells were located in the center of the building and in the southwest corner. Apparently, the front facade was faced with brick, and a one-story wall extended south just beyond the edge of the building. Windows were located on the first and second stories of the front facade, the rear half of the building’s north facade, the front half of the building’s south facade, and the second story of the building’s east facade. Front-facade windows had decorative surrounds with wide exterior sills. It was constructed as a newspaper printing shop. Between 1947 and 1949, a small one-story, rectangular addition was built at the rear of the building. Framed of brick, it had a roof sheathed in a composite material that measured 10 feet high and had a 2-foothigh parapet. A first- and second-story window unit was added to the front half of the north facade. Between 1953 and 1957, the brick addition was removed. An elevator was added to the north wall, where the building was connected to the newly constructed building at 210 N. Stone Avenue. In 1959, a three-story addition was added to the rear of the building, and it became “a single, compact, fire-resistant structure of concrete and steel with two floors below street level and three above” (Tucson Newspapers 1955). The rear portion of the building was opened up at street level. 277 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building I (210 N. Stone Avenue, Tucson Newspapers) For a description of Building I, see Chapter 13. Privy Pit 10214 Privy Pit 10214 was discovered during mechanical stripping. It measured 4.5 by 5 feet and was over 7 feet deep. The feature was impacted by the mechanical removal of the Tucson Electric Power line (Feature 630) during this project. Because of the unconsolidated nature of the feature fill, the mechanical removal collapsed a significant portion of Privy Pit 10214, but the collapse was monitored by archaeologists. The remainder of the privy, including the collapsed portion, was mechanically excavated and screened as one unit. Before the collapse, a lime cap was noted, indicating formal closure of the privy. Unfortunately, no other stratigraphic information was recorded. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analysis Privy Pit 10214 did not yield any artifacts from the following categories: footwear, recreation, communication, commerce, transportation, invertebrates, and macrobotanical remains. Ceramic sherds from about 11 vessels were recovered from Privy Pit 10214. Of the 36 sherds in this feature, 53 percent (n = 19; MVC = 4) were hardpaste porcelain. Bone china (n = 8; MVC = 1) and nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 6; MVC = 2) were the other main ceramic body types. Identified forms included sherds from plates (MVC = 2), saucers (MVC = 2), a bowl, a cup, and a storage jar. Relief molding was the primary decorative technology on tableware vessel sherds. The only maker’s mark was for Haviland and Company (1888–1896), a firm partnered with Limoges of France (marks4ceramics.com). The artifact collection from Privy Pit 10214 contained 20 nonceramic tableware artifacts (MVC = 9). All of the tableware items were glass vessels. Tumblers (n = 11; MVC = 8) made up most of the nonceramic tableware vessels. The only tableware item that was not a tumbler was a 2-layered, pink and colorless-glass bowl, which was represented by nine glass shards. Decorative techniques identified on tumblers in this feature (MVC = 8) included etching (MVC = 2) and molding (MVC = 1). The feature held a minimum of eight glass and metal food/beverage containers, including five bottles, two jars, and one can. Of those vessels with identifiable technology, 57 percent (n = 4) were machine-made. Specific bottle and jar contents could not be identified. Evidence of at least two unidentified beverage bottles (one green, one aqua), two condiment bottles (Putnam 1965:154), and one food bottle was recovered. Some home-canned food was consumed by lot inhabitants as evidenced by at least two canning jars, one of which was made by Ball between 1895 and 1910 (Toulouse 1969:31). One baking-powder can was also present. Food and beverage containers from this feature that were temporally diagnostic suggested deposition between 1895 and 1910; however, this date range was based on a single canning jar, and because canning jars were commonly reused, deposition may have been long after the manufacture date. Privy Pit 10214 yielded a total of 155 alcoholic-beverage bottles and shards representing a minimum of 38 vessels from its single stratum. Ninety-five percent (n = 147; MVC = 33) of shards were from beer bottles, none of which had a datable mark. The only datable vessel was a nearly complete bottle made for the H. Guggenheimer and Brothers Distillery (1898–1904) (Wilson and Wilson 1968:77). Because no fully machine-made bottle finishes were identified in this feature, most vessels were probably made before the near-total mechanization of the alcohol-bottle industry was completed in the 1920s. Also recovered from the feature were a sew-through button, a snap, and a suspender clasp. Size of the button suggested its use on a shirt. Clothing fasteners in this lot/feature indicated men’s casual/work clothing. No clothing fabric was recovered. 278 Chapter 14 • Block 254, Lot 2 The single stratigraphic layer of Privy Pit 10214 yielded several personal artifacts. Heath/hygiene items consisted of a rubber vaginal fountain syringe, a complete glass tooth-powder bottle, and a nonferrous spout top that may have been used for tooth, foot, or body powder. Two milk-glass jars, one embossed “NETTIE”, were also recovered. No additional information could be found for this product. A total of 28 medicine-related glass artifacts (MVC = 15) was recovered from the feature. Ninetythree percent (n = 26; MVC = 13) of these artifacts were from medicine bottles and 7 percent (n = 2; MVC = 2) was cylindrical glass tubing that may have been from ampoules or test tubes. Forty-six percent (n = 13; MVC = 9) of glass from this feature was hand-finished vs. 4 percent (n = 1; MVC = 1) that was completely machine-made. The manufacturing technique could not be identified for half (n = 14; MVC = 5) of the medicine glass from this feature. The density of medicinal glass artifacts was very low throughout this feature at 0.19 per cubic foot (0.005/m³). Although no products were identified, at least three vessels in this feature were made by the Obear-Nester Company (1894–1915) (Toulouse 1971:373). A complete, colorless-glass medicine bottle was recovered from Privy Pit 10214. The bottle contained the remains of an unknown medicine (Figure 80). The bottle contents had separated into a liquid over a brown solid substance. Both layers were subjected to analysis by all four mass spectrometry techniques. Three compounds were detected in the sample from this bottle: camphor, phenol, and palmitic acid. These three compounds were identified in a dichloromethane extract on all four instruments (Somogyi, personal communication 2009). Camphor is a ketone volatile oil that is known for its effervescent, cooling effect on the skin (Tyler et al. 1988:124). Phenol is another volatile ���������������������������������������������������������� oil used medicinally for its �������������������� antiseptic and anesthetic properties (Tyler et al. 1988:127). Palmitic acid is between 35 and 45 percent palm oil and is used in rubber and latex manufacturing, plastics, greases, lubricants, food additives, cosmetics, and toiletries. It is also a plasticizer used in pharmaceuticals (Claus et al. 1970:151). The compounds identified in the bottle are indicative of an internal antibacterial antiseptic or a topical liniment. Volatile oils in the terpenoid group, such as camphor and phenol, were valued not only for their aromatic qualities, but also have been known since Babylonian times as an effective antibacterial medicine (Claus et al. 1970:160–164). At the close of the nineteenth century, terpenoids were typically used in topical liniments, salves, and ointments, and internally as an antiseptic and vermifuge after being mixed with sweeteners (Chase 1864; Hartshorne 1881). Vermifuges were medicines used to kill gastrointestinal parasites. Recipes for liniments and vermifuges in nineteenth-century pharmacy books frequently used terpenoids because of their medicinal properties. Two smoking-related artifacts were recovered from Privy Pit 10214: the lip end of a long-stemmed clay smoking pipe, and a complete, amber glass jar that likely contained snuff. The feature also yielded one weaponry artifact, a shotgun shell. This centerfire 12-gauge shell had no head stamp, thus the date and manufacturer remains unknown. Thirty-two construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered from Privy Pit 10214. These artifacts were mostly common wire nails and nail fragments (n = 17) but also included window glass fragments (n = 3), and bolts (n = 3). Complete nails measured 4d and 8d. The density of construction artifacts in this feature was very low (0.22 per cubic foot or 0.006/m³). Fifteen colorless-glass lamp-chimney shards were recovered from Privy Pit 10214. One of these, a rim shard, was decorated with an etched horizontal line. The single stratigraphic layer of Privy Pit 10214 produced at least two glass vessels, one pink and one of milk glass, and sherds of one nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware washstand pitcher. The pitcher sherds exhibited a blue transfer-printed iris pattern and relief molding. Unburned coal and a colorless beveled flatglass fragment of a tabletop, vanity, or desk were also recovered from this feature. This privy pit contained only a small sample of animal bones (Table 41). The collection mainly consisted of bones from cattle-sized animals. In all likelihood, the elements from the latter taxonomic category were in fact from domestic cattle but did not preserve anatomical markers making that definition definitive. A few bones, probably of sheep but possibly goats or deer, were also identified. Cattle were represented here primarily by large meat cuts, from both the front and rear limbs. These appeared to be mainly what we can generally consider as rounds, large pieces of meat meant as roasts. Smaller numbers of cuts originating from the vertebrae and pelvis were also identified. By contrast, sheep, sheep/goats, or sheep/goat-sized mammals were represented by different portions of the carcass. Most cuts from these animals were of steaks, although some ribs, roasts, cranial and less meaty (ankle and tail) bones also surfaced. Aside from these important species, the feature also contained the bones of several avian taxa. These included, minimally, domesticated chickens, (probably) domesticated turkeys, and a species of dove. Both the MNI estimates and the NISP counts demonstrated that chickens were the most-prevalent bird taxon. The presence of unidentifiable turkey- and chicken-sized birds reaffirmed that impression. 279 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Of particular interest, 21 permanent human teeth were found in Privy Pit 10214 that analysis demonstrated came from the postcemetery occupation of the lot, rather than from the cemetery (Appendix L). Most of the teeth (13/21) exhibited carious lesions and several had multiple lesions. Fractures were evident in a number of the teeth (8/21), and these were frequently associated with large cavities that had undermined tooth enamel. Four teeth had dental fillings, and all of these were associated with fractured enamel. Two teeth were scanned with X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and the fillings were determined to be an amalgam of tin, mercury, and silver. The other two fillings were composed of a white, granular material, which may also have been a white-metal amalgam. One of these filled a deep drilled cavity on the lingual aspect of a central maxillary incisor. Six of the 21 teeth had no cavities or fractures. These included 3 mandibular premolars, 2 mandibular incisors, and 1 maxillary third molar. It is likely that the mandibular premolars and incisors had been extracted in orthodontic treatment, as dental crowding is a common condition that is generally more severe in the mandible than the maxilla. The extracted human teeth are attributed to Dr. Whomes’s dental work during the time he lived on the lot (1896–1901). The condition of the teeth is consistent with the hypothesis that these were extracted during the course of his dental practice in early-twentieth-century Tucson. The dentist had an office elsewhere in town, and written records did not reveal that he practiced dentistry out of the residence. However, it remains possible that he performed dental work at home for family, friends, or emergency patients. The collection of extracted teeth may have represented a set curated by the dentist for instructional purposes or as a somewhat morbid trophy collection. Chronology, Correlation, and Summary Excavation of the Tucson Newspapers basement in 1940 and 1953 removed nearly all material evidence of residential occupation on Block 254, Lot 2. Fortunately, Privy Pit 10214 remained extant. Despite the fact that stratigraphic information was lost when the feature collapsed during monitoring, temporally diagnostic artifacts and other data revealed that the privy dated to the earliest residential occupations. The neighborhood received sewer service around 1902, and if this household connected to the service when it became available, the privy would have been abandoned at that time. The presence of one particular artifact type (extracted human teeth) provided evidence that the privy was associated with dentist Whomes’s tenure between 1896 and 1901. Underwood lived on the lot from 1901–1902, and his tenure was followed by that of Annie Sullivan, who apparently occupied the residence between 1902 and 1908 or later; the privy may have remained in use during that time. Artifacts retrieved from the privy pit included vitreous and semi-vitreous ceramics dated 1888–1896 and common glass tablewares such as tumblers. Food and beverage containers were both commercially prepared products and home preserves; these dated to 1910 or prior, indicating deposition by the Whomes, Underwood, Sullivan, or Blanc families prior to use of the property by renters. The number of food bottles in the collection indicated that residents used mass-produced condiments and beverages. Although the presence of jars and cans in the collection revealed use of mass-produced fruits, vegetables, meats, and other food products, the low number of these items suggested that fresh (unpackaged) foods may have been routinely consumed in the home, or that separate disposal practices were employed for other types of refuse. A small number of liquor containers was identified from the feature; all were produced prior to Prohibition, and one predated 1904, indicating deposition during the Whomes or Underwood occupation of the lot. Personal artifacts from this feature yielded no temporal data; recovery of a vaginal syringe indicated a female lived on the lot. At least three medicine containers from this feature were manufactured before 1915, indicating deposition during the Whomes, Underwood, or Blanc tenures. A complete bottle from Stratum I was subjected to mass spectrometer analysis and found to contain either an internal antibacterial antiseptic or topical liniment. Smoking pipe and snuff jar fragments from the feature indicated that at least one resident partook of tobacco-related activities. A piece of unburned coal was also recovered from the privy pit. Faunal remains from this feature represented almost entirely beef, with a small amount of bird bones. Faunal remains were not temporally diagnostic. The privy and nine postholes (indicating a curb along Stone Avenue) were the only archaeological features representing the residential period on Block 254, Lot 2. The basement and foundation of Building I (the Tucson Newspapers building), along with landscaping and utility poles from that period, represented the commercial period on Lot 2. 280 Chapter 14 • Block 254, Lot 2 Figure 80. Philadelphia oval-shaped medicine bottle with original contents from Block 254, Lot 2, Privy Pit 10214 (Inventory No. 080000DB55). 281 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 41. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 10214, Block 254, Lot 2 Total Common Name NISP % Zenaida doves 1 1 Wild or domestic turkey 1 1 Domestic chicken 4 5 Turkey-sized bird 2 2 Chicken-sized bird 13 15 Mice, rats, voles, and lemmings 1 1 Rabbit or hare 1 1 Cow 2 2 Sheep 2 2 Sheep/goat 1 1 Cow-sized mammal 35 40 Sheep/goat-sized mammal 26 30 Total 89 Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 282 C hapter  1 5 Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 55/57/59 Miltenberg Street, and 46/48/50 Grossetta Avenue The early ownership records for Lots 4 and 5 are somewhat unclear. Like the other lots in Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 were sold by the Trustees of School District No. 1 in March 1890. Both lots were purchased by H. H. Pilling, a homoeopathic physician in Tucson, for whom we found little other information. No record was found of a transfer of ownership; however, in 1892, a man named José M. Mariscal (see Biographies) filed a homestead claim on both properties under Arizona law (e.g. Arizona Revised Statutes § 33-1101). Mariscal subsequently sold Lots 4 and 5 to Benjamin Fairbanks in 1894. Pilling issued a quitclaim deed on both lots to Fairbanks’s widow in 1903. When Benjamin Fairbanks (see Biographies) purchased Lots 4 and 5, adding them to Lots 6 and 7, he created one of the largest properties held by a single individual on the project area, with over three-fourths of an acre of land. Like John Brown, he probably used much of this extra land for keeping livestock, such as horses to pull his buggy. In Figure 10, which dates to José Mariscal’s claim on the land, some sort of hedge, fence, or woodpile can be seen enclosing Lots 4 and 5, possibly indicating that Mariscal also used the land to house livestock. Both Figure 10 and the 1901 Sanborn map also show a stable and several sheds along the southern property line of Lots 4 and 5. However, despite the photographic and cartographic evidence, no archaeological features were encountered that could be definitively associated with this time period. In August 1903, Edna Morgan, the remarried widow of Benjamin Fairbanks, sold the west half of Lot 4 to David Cochran, a contractor and builder in early Tucson. In December of the same year, Cochran purchased the rest of Lot 4 and all of Lot 5, transferring the eastern half of Lot 4 to his wife Lottie a few months later. By that time, the Cochrans had built a house on each of the halves of Lot 4. Initially addressed 45 and 45a Miltenberg Street, they were soon renumbered 55 and 57 Miltenberg Street and would remain so until the residences were demolished. Both buildings were constructed on the same floor plan, a narrow rectangle with only 965 square feet of space. Sometime between 1904 and 1909 (Sanborn 1904–1909), the Cochrans built three more houses on Lot 5, aligned north-south. The southernmost house, at 46 Grossetta Avenue, was probably built on the same floor plan as the two houses located on Lot 4, with approximately the same square footage. The other two houses were unique in their floor plans. The middle house, at 48 Grossetta Avenue, was a small rectangle with only 650 square feet of space. The northern house, at 59 Miltenberg Street, was located on the corner of Grossetta Avenue and Miltenberg Street. It was the largest of the five houses, with 1,050 square feet of space. A small collection of outbuildings was constructed in the southwest corner of Lot 4. These were known variously as 461/2 Miltenberg Street (Sanborn 1909–1914), 551/2 Miltenberg Street (Bureau of the Census 1910, Sanborn 1919–1952), and “57 Miltenberg in the Rear” (TCD 1930–1933). Occasionally, one of these addresses was rented out as a dwelling. Of this collection of buildings, the one most likely to have represented a dwelling, as depicted on the Sanborn maps (1909, 1919), had a grand total of 280 square feet of space. Early residential records for these properties indicate that between 1908 and 1910, 55 Miltenberg Street was the home of Peter Cosgrove, whose occupation was simply listed as “Own Income.” Next door, at 57 Miltenberg Street, lived Henry Till, proprietor of the Henry Till Company, which ran the bottling works located on Block 253 of the project area. By 1910, Till was replaced by Raymond Brena, an employee and relative of prominent local merchant Rosario Brena. In 1912, 57 Miltenberg Street again housed an employee of the Henry Till Company, a man named William Robinson, who lived there until at least 1914. According to the 1910 Federal Census, Norman Perry, proprietor of the Arizona Stables, was living at 59 Miltenberg 283 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Street. He resided at that address until around 1913. Finally, Anna Ruth Barker, a student at the University of Arizona, lived at 48 Grossetta Avenue in 1910; no further information about her is available. Starting in 1918, reverse lookup in the city directory made it possible to obtain an exhaustive record of the tenants living in all five houses (see Appendix D). At 55 Miltenberg Street, only four residents were listed between 1917 and 1930. James Trammel, a Southern Pacific foreman, and his wife Helen occupied the lot for the longest period, living at that address for 7 years. Between 1930 and 1953, residential information indicates that most people stayed no more than 3 years at a time. These residents included seamstresses, a salesman, and realtors, as well as managers for department stores, restaurants, and tire shops. Between 1918 and 1923, George Halloway resided at 57 Miltenberg Street. He worked in various occupations during this time: as a cattle rancher; a deputy sheriff; and a captain of the police department. Over the next 12 years, the property saw a high turnover of residents and at least 4 years of vacancy. Six people were variously listed at this address during these years, including a civil engineer, a Southern Pacific brakeman, a newsstand employee, and several single women who appear to have been widows (see Appendix D). In 1937, the owners of Lots 4 and 5, Rudolph and Mary Rasmessen (see Biographies), moved into 57 Miltenberg Street from their home in the upscale Paseo Redondo neighborhood. When the couple died, within 2 years of each other, their son Ford continued to live at 57 Miltenberg Street with his wife Frances. The younger couple moved away in 1948, and the property reverted to a rental. Between 1949 and 1953, the structure housed a series of retired and widowed individuals, for whom archival research revealed no evidence of employment. Indeed, the only occupation listed in the directories was for the “Cal. Bridge Club.” On the corner of Miltenberg and Grossetta was 59 Miltenberg Street. Between 1918 and 1923, the structure housed four tenants: Thomas Burts, an Arizona ranger and deputy sheriff; Andrew Rowe and James Hammond, both civil engineers; and Merril Knapp, a mechanic. Around 1924, the structure was made into a duplex, named 59 Miltenberg Street and 50 Grossetta Avenue. Of the tenants that followed, most stayed no more than 1 year and none stayed more than 2 years (see Appendix D). These tenants had a plethora of occupations, from bookkeeper to druggist to embalmer. The longest tenant was Reginald Russell, a photographer who used 50 Grossetta Avenue as his studio for six years (see Appendix E). Just south of 59 Miltenberg Street was 48 Grossetta Avenue. From 1917 until 1921, it was the residence of Oliver H. Medearis, a conductor on the Southern Pacific Railroad. During the 1920s, the structure variously housed a superintendent for an ice cream plant, a city building inspector, an optician, and a Southern Pacific brakeman (see Appendix D). Charles Eaton, a deputy sheriff at the time, and Gilliam and Lulu Smith of the Powder Puff Beauty Salon, also spent some time living at this address. During the 1930s, a dental technician, a Western Union clerk, and a mechanic all called this place home. Between 1943 and 1953, Ted S. Wallace, a printer for Tucson Newspapers, became the longest-tenured resident of 48 Grossetta Avenue. South of 48 Grossetta was 46 Grossetta Avenue, which housed six residents between 1917 and 1930. These included two Southern Pacific brakemen, the owner of an ice cream shop, a cattleman, and a machinist (see Appendix D). The resident who lived there for the longest period was Charles Eaton, foreman for Mulcany Lumber Company and chief clerk for the county highway department. Then, in 1930, 46 Grossetta Avenue became the Powder Puff Beauty Salon (see Commercial Enterprises). Although it remained a beauty salon until the building was razed in 1953, it also continued to be used as a dwelling. All three of the proprietors spent several years living off the project area, but each ended up residing at their place of business more often than not. They included Gilliam and Lulu Smith, Eaton and Laura Davis, and Coleman Martin who, in 1949, changed the name of the shop to Martin’s Beauty Salon. Of the postcemetery features that were excavated (Figure 81), nine probably predated the erection of residential structures on Lots 4 and 5. Two of these were pits of unknown origin located on Lot 4 (Features 604 and 3242). They have been interpreted as borrow pits, possibly related to making adobe from the soil from the “Old Cemetery” before it became a residential area (AWC, 27 March 1881). Two of the features were refuse deposits on Lot 5, probably related to filling borrow pits during the construction of houses along Grossetta Avenue (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Refuse Deposits 750 and 3364). A third refuse deposit (Feature 3340) may have provided access for Benjamin Fairbanks to move waste from his stables on Lots 4 and 5 to Privy Pit 3042, located just to the south on Lot 6. Indeed, the two features abutted each other, and some stratigraphic evidence suggested flow between them. In addition, two tree pits (Landscaping Pits 3374 and 3375) were located just north of the property line between Lots 4 and 6. The remaining two features, located at the boundary between Lots 4 and 5, were both classified as refuse pits but may have represented secondary burials (Refuse Pits 746 and 2045). Both contained large numbers of human skeletal elements, likely from the same individual (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions). Both features were in close proximity to the sewer system for 46 and 48 Grossetta Avenue and 59 Miltenberg Street. It is likely that, when 284 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 installing this system, a grave was disturbed and the remains were placed within the pits. These pits were subsequently filled with the same refuse-bearing deposits used to level other borrow pits in the area. The sewer system was put in place during construction of the houses on Lot 5. This was the first evidence in the project area for construction of the city sewer, started in 1900, although it was not the first evidence of indoor plumbing. This system, composed of five trenches (Trenches 593, 747, 748, 749, and 751), connected 46 and 48 Grossetta Avenue and 59 Miltenberg Street to a sewer main somewhere in the alley west of Lot 4. Another section of sewer pipe (Trench 3377) appeared to have connected to 551/2 Miltenberg Street, the small dwelling in the southwest corner of Lot 4. In addition to sewer lines, a gas line (Trench 3376) may have supplied one of the buildings associated with 551/2 Miltenberg Street. Similarly, Trench 553 most likely ran from the gas main in Miltenberg Street to the house at 55 Miltenberg Street. Of the 13 nontrench features thought to be associated with the residential period of Lots 4 and 5 (see Figure 81), 5 were foundation elements (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Buildings AA, P, Y, and Z). These were all fragmentary, but they correspond roughly with historical-period structures. Building Y was most likely associated with the residence at 55 Miltenberg Street, and Building AA was probably the stable behind the house at 461/2 Miltenberg Street. The residence at 46 Grossetta Avenue was represented by Building Z, and 48 Grossetta Avenue by Building P. There were also three pit features associated with the residential period (Pits 3182 and 3180 and Refuse Pit 2246). These were all located in the northern half of Lot 5 and were probably associated with 59 Miltenberg Street. Additionally, there were two dog burials located near the small dwelling at 551/2 Miltenberg Street (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Animal Burials 3284 and 3285). Finally, three tree pits were recorded in front of 59 Miltenberg Street that were probably related to the residential period (see Miltenberg Street: Landscaping Features 29360, 30001, and 30002). These tree pits were positioned in a linear alignment within the Miltenberg Street right-of-way, approximately 8 feet from the northern boundary of Lot 5. Three final features in the southern half of Lot 5 may have been associated with the residential period, but no definite determination was possible. These included Pits 3240 and 10193, as well as Posthole 4565. The latter disturbed a burial and was most likely an auger hole. Commercial History: 55 E. Council Street In 1953, all of the houses on Lots 4 and 5 were razed to make way for Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station, previously located on the corner of Stone Avenue and Miltenberg Street at 210 N. Stone Avenue. This move was the result of the expansion of the Tucson Newspapers building (O’Mack 2005). The same year as the move, Miltenberg Street was renamed, and the new address of Durazzo’s became 55 E. Council Street. Durazzo’s remained at 55 E. Council Street until 1981. It was replaced for a year by the M&D Service Station before Council Street Automotive took over the building, operating it until at least 2005 (Figure 82) (O’Mack 2005). The building was demolished at the beginning of this investigation, and its remains are described in the feature descriptions as Building A (see Figure 81). The only feature from this period not associated with the service station building was Pit 30600. This pit represented the 2001 excavation of a skeleton and coffin by Tierra Right-of-Way Services, discovered during the installation of a buried fiber-optic line (Allen 2001; Zaglauer and Doak 2003). Biographies Mariscal José M. Mariscal bought and sold several lots within the project area between 1890 and 1898, and it is possible he was briefly a resident as well. In 1890, he purchased three lots on Block 252: Lot 4 from the city of Tucson, and Lots 5 and 10 from Rosario Brena. He sold all of these to John Brown by August of the same year. In 1891, he acquired Lot 1 of Block 254 from John H. Martin. In 1893, he homesteaded this lot as 285 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest well as two others, Lots 4 and 5, in the same block. He probably purchased these lots from H. H. Pilling, the previous owner, although there is no record of the sale. A statute regarding “homesteading” in the Arizona Revised Statutes allowed any adult to designate a contiguous area of land as a “homestead,” which was exempted from collection on debts not related to the property (A.R.S. § 33-1101). Mariscal homesteaded these properties, indicating that he probably lived in the project area, as residency was one of the requirements of the statute. He sold two of the properties, Lots 4 and 5, to Benjamin Fairbanks in 1894. In 1898, he sold Lot 1 to Marcus Smith. Unfortunately, not much is known of José Mariscal outside of his property ownership in the project area. It is uncertain where Mariscal was born or when he arrived in Tucson, although he was likely a resident by the time he began buying property in 1890. In 1899, at the age of 39, he was married to Angela Circi within the Arizona Territory (Negley and Lindley 1994). Between 1897 and 1913, he was proprietor of a general store named Larro and Mariscal, at the corner of North Stone Avenue and Pennington Street. In 1902, he also served as treasurer for the Spanish-American Alliance (Alianza Hispano-Americana), a fraternal organization operating in Tucson between 1894 and 1962 (AHS n.d. v). The organization was dedicated to providing insurance for its members and improving the economic and social status of Mexican Americans. In 1903, in addition to running the general store, he was also the proprietor of Arizona Undertaking and the Tucson Fuel Company. His purchases and sales within the project area suggest that he was involved in real estate as well. Mariscal continued to appear in the Tucson city directories until 1921, but he was not listed with an occupation after 1913, indicating that he may have retired. Whether he died or moved from Tucson in 1921 is unknown. Fairbanks For a biography of Benjamin Fairbanks, see Chapter 16. Cochran David S. Cochran was a property owner in the project area. He bought Lots 4 and 5 of Block 254 from Edna Morgan in 1903. He built the residential structures at 55, 57, and 59 Miltenberg Street and those at 46 and 48 Grossetta Avenue, and he operated them as rental properties. He sold most of the property to Mary Rasmessen in 1927 and sold the rest to her in 1929. Cochran was one of the major developers of Tucson at the turn of the twentieth century and had a hand in much of the residential expansion that occurred during that time. In addition to his work in the project area, he also constructed six of the houses in the wealthy neighborhood of Paseo Redondo, known later as “snob hollow” (AHS 1943; AS, 13 January 1944). He also built most of the original structures along E. 9th Street as housing for incoming railroad workers. Born in Ohio with little formal education, Cochran learned the building trade and became a carpenter at the age of 18, working for the B&O Railroad before heading west to California (AHS 1943; AS, 22 February 1934). There he established a construction business in 1886. In 1888, he married a widow from Ft. Wayne, Indiana, named Lottie and brought his new wife and her daughter out west with him. In 1896, his stepdaughter contracted tuberculosis and the family went east to Tucson for what was meant to be a brief recovery period. However, Cochran wound up reestablishing his construction business in the new town and making his home there (AHS 1943; AS, 22 February 1934). Cochran served two terms on the Tucson City Council and was briefly on the Pima County Board of Supervisors (AHS 1943). He was also a charter member of the Old Pueblo Club (AHS n.d. q), a fraternal organization specific to Tucson. He retired from his business in 1915 and used the extra time to build a house in the Catalina foothills, alone and by hand (TC, 28 April 1929). The house later became famous for the nearly 1,200 people “from California to China” who stayed there as Cochran’s guests (TC, 12 January 1944). Cochran died in 1944 at the age of 88. Rasmessen The Rasmessen family were residents as well as landowners in the project area starting in the late 1920s. In 1927, Mary Rasmessen acquired Lots 4 and 5 of Block 254. Four single-family houses, a habitable 286 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 outbuilding, and a duplex stood on the land, and they were all operated as rental properties. In 1937, Mary and her husband Rudolph sold their home in the upscale Paseo Redondo neighborhood when plans were made to build a new house in the northeast part of town (TC, 9 February 1940). They made what was meant to be a temporary move into one of the houses on their holdings within the project area, at 57 Miltenberg Street. In 1940, however, before they could complete their new home, Mary died at the age of 62. Rudolph himself passed away a year later, in 1941, while visiting his daughter Betty in Fresno, California (ADS, 16 January 1941). The Rasmessens left a curio shop and their property within the project area to their son Ford, who continued to live in the house at 57 Miltenberg Street with his wife Frances. It was Ford who in 1948 moved Rasmessen’s Curios to 20 E. Alameda Street, adjacent to the project area. That same year, he and Frances moved out of the project area, to a new house at Roger Road and Flowing Wells. The store remained at its location for 4 years, disappearing from formal records in 1952. The shop may have gone out of business at that time, because there are no other listings for it in the Tucson city directories in the following years. However, Ford seems to have maintained at least partial ownership of his mother’s property until the land was acquired for the Joint Courts Complex project in 2006. He was listed as one of the owners of 55 E. Council Street on the historic property inventory form (O’Mack 2005). The patriarch of the family, Rudolph Rasmessen (Figure 83), first arrived in Tucson in November of 1898 in dire circumstances. After an 11-week bout with typhoid fever in Chicago, he weighed 115 pounds, and his physician had begun to fear the disease would threaten his lungs. Thus, like many respiratory sufferers at the time, he was ordered to southern Arizona. He chose Tucson for its railroad in case a “rapid departure . . . became desirable” (TC, 22 July 1928) and because he thought Tombstone had an inauspicious name, given his condition. He came intending a 6-week stay but he made his home in the desert city. His arrival did not go unnoticed. Dressed in his Chicago finery, he walked into town from the rail station on a dirt trail through the mesquite. He made his first stop at a cigar shop, where he had to push his way through a group of young locals loitering at the door. He later became friends with one of the men, project area resident Mose Kelley, who told him his arrival had caused quite a stir, sparking a debate over who would have to knock the derby hat off his head (TC, 22 July 1928). Rudolph had come to town with some experience in clothing retail but was also interested in the mining business. His first mining job, however, disabused him of any fantasies he had about pursuing such a frontier lifestyle; it was reportedly the last time he ever touched a wheelbarrow (TC, 22 July 1928). Instead, he put his retail experience to work. Shortly after arriving in Tucson, he bought into a cigar store with partner Sam Bowman, an early acquaintance. By 1899, he was also partner with Sam in the Bowman’s Curio Store. Sam’s father, John, who was backing the store financially, trained Rudolph to be a trader with the Native American tribes of Arizona. Eventually, he gained full possession of the shop, which he operated until his death (TC, 22 July 1928). Meanwhile, Rudolph became deeply involved in the social and political development of Tucson. In his time, he joined many of the local fraternal groups and clubs that knit together most of the city’s prominent citizens. Early in his residence, he became involved with the self-styled progressive elements of the city, which supported the development and expansion of Tucson. At the turn of the twentieth century, the issue of the day was the installation of a sewer system to replace the overtaxed privies and cesspits. This was a cause Rasmessen supported, noting upon his arrival that Tucson needed no lights for the traveler to find his way into town “if the wind happened to be blowing his way” (TC, 22 July 1928). He went on to serve on the common council of Tucson in 1918 (AHS 1928c), as well as a number of other minor civil positions. He also served as chairman of the Tucson Republican Committee and was elected mayor between 1921 and 1924 (TC, 22 July 1928). As mayor, Rasmessen was remembered for his proactive management of the city’s physical and economic infrastructure. For example, he famously instituted and balanced the first Tucson city budget, taking the city from $18,500 in debt at the start of his term to a surplus by the end (AHS 1924b). He was also remembered for his successful campaign to pave the city streets, including Toole Avenue and Alameda Street bordering the project area (ADS, 15 August 1929; TC, 7 July 1930). Finally, he was credited with revamping the payment system for the water department and increasing the water supply through tighter policing of the usage restrictions. Rudolph retired from public life in 1930. 287 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Commercial Enterprises Powder Puff Beauty Salon The Powder Puff Beauty Salon started operating out of a residential structure at 46 Grossetta Avenue in 1931. The proprietors, Gilliam (archival references and the 1930 Federal Census sometimes spell it “Gillian”) and Lulu (sometimes “Lula”) Smith, along with Lulu’s son Charles Cheek, were residents in the project area by 1929. They lived at 48 Grossetta Avenue, next door to the house that would become the Powder Puff, while working at other beauty and barber shops outside the project area. In 1930, Lulu began operating an early version of Powder Puff out of their home at 48 Grossetta Avenue. In 1931, she moved into 46 Grossetta Avenue, taking the salon with her, while Gilliam lived off-site and worked at the Vanity Barber Shop. However, both individuals were living and working at Powder Puff by 1932. In the following years, the couple alternately lived on and off the project area. When in the project area, they were often listed as living at 46 Grossetta Avenue but sometimes appear to have moved into a different nearby residence. Throughout this period, however, they remained joint proprietors of the salon. This lasted until 1946, when the couple disappeared from the Tucson directories altogether. The Powder Puff Beauty Salon was taken over by Elton and Laura Davis, who also lived at that address. Elton did not appear to have been directly involved in the salon, however, as he was listed as a patrolman at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in 1948. In 1949, the salon changed hands again, as well as names. Martin Coleman operated the salon as Martin’s Beauty Studio until 1953. In 1951, his wife Victoria Coleman made a brief attempt at opening a women’s clothing shop alongside the beauty salon. The building was demolished 2 years later, to make room for the new Durazzo’s filling station. Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station In 1950, construction began on Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station at 210 (220) N. Stone Avenue, which had served as the North Stone Auto Park for the previous 2 years (see Figure 77). Although the location had been a service station under various names for many years prior, underground gasoline tanks had apparently never been installed. When excavation for Durazzo’s tank uncovered human remains, it inspired an article in the Arizona Daily Star (ADS, 28 December 1950:2a). Durazzo’s filling station spent only 2 years at its N. Stone Avenue location before the expansion of the Tucson Newspaper building forced it half a block east. It remained there, at 55 E. Council Street, for decades afterward, using Lots 11, 12, and 13 of Block 252—across the street—as parking space. In 1983, Durazzo’s became the M & D Service Station before changing names again in 1984 to Council Street Automotive (see Figure 82). It kept this name until it was demolished in 2006. The footprint of the building, as well as the remains of a service bay and underground tank, were observable archaeologically during excavation. Architectural Descriptions 46 Grossetta Avenue, Powder Puff Beauty Salon (Building Z) This one-story, single-family dwelling, constructed between 1904 and 1909, was likely Folk Victorian in style. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1909–1952) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 63]; see Figures 13–16). Oriented east-west, the front entrance faced east onto Grossetta Avenue. Constructed of adobe, the irregular-in-plan building had a wood-framed hipped roof clad in wood shingles. The building walls were 1 foot thick. The moderately pitched roof had a wood-framed cornice. Extending above the roof were two interior chimneys. The residence had opposite-corner wood-framed front and rear porches. The building’s exterior walls backing these porches were clad in brick. Between 1923 and 1930, the building was reroofed in a noncombustible material. Between 1931 and 1947, the building functioned as a commercial enterprise and housed a 288 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 store. This change modified the building with six new openings: two on the south facade, two on the north facade, and two onto the rear porch. 461/2 Grossetta Avenue, Outbuilding (Building AA) This one-story outbuilding was constructed of wood between 1902 and 1904. It had a wood-framed roof with wood shingles (see Figures 14 and 15) (Sanborn 1904–1930). Between 1905 and 1914, it functioned as a stable. The structure was gone by 1939. 48 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure (Building P) This one-story, single-family dwelling, constructed between 1904 and 1909, appeared to be Folk Victorian in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7, 18, 20, 25, 22, 23, 24, and 63]; see Figures 13–16) (Sanborn 1909–1952). Oriented east-west, the front entrance faced east onto Grossetta Avenue. Constructed of adobe, the irregular-in-plan building had a wood-framed hipped roof clad in wood shingles. The moderately pitched roof had a wood-framed cornice. Extending above the roof was at least one interior chimney. The residence had wood-framed front and rear porches on the south facade. The building’s exterior walls backing these porches were clad in brick. Between 1923 and 1930, the building was reroofed in a noncombustible material. Between 1937 and 1941, an additional interior chimney was added. 45/55 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure (Building Y) This one-story building, constructed between 1902 and 1904, was likely Folk Victorian in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 62]; see Figures 14–16) (Sanborn 1904–1952). This irregular-in-plan single-family dwelling was oriented north-south, with the front facing north onto Miltenberg Street. Constructed of brick, it had a moderately pitched, wood-framed hipped roof that was clad in wood shingles. It had a wood-framed cornice with moderately overhanging eaves. Two interior chimneys on the east side extended beyond the roofline. The building had opposite-corner front and rear wood-framed porches. Between 1931 and 1947, the building was resheathed in a composite material. 551/2 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure/Garage (No Building Number) This was a one-story outbuilding. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1909– 1952) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 63, and 65]; see Figures 14–17). Constructed of adobe between 1905 and 1909, it had a flat or shed roof, was sheathed in a composite material, and had a 6-inch-high parapet. It had a wood-framed porch with a wood-shingled roof on the west facade. The building had two primary openings on the south facade. Between 1915 and 1919, the building became a single-family dwelling. The front entrance faced the alley between North Stone and Grossetta Avenues. The porch roof was resheathed in a composite material, and the building’s parapet was removed. Between 1930 and 1947, the front porch was enclosed, and a low-pitched gable roof was constructed. 57 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure/Garage (No Building Number) This one-story building, constructed between 1902 and 1904, was likely Folk Victorian in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 62]; see Figures 14–16) (Sanborn 1904–1957). The irregular-in-plan, single-family dwelling was oriented north-south, with the front facing north onto Miltenberg Street. Constructed of brick, it had a moderately pitched, wood-framed hipped roof that was clad in wood shingles. It had a wood-framed cornice with moderately overhanging eaves. Two interior chimneys on the east side extended beyond the roofline. The building had opposite-corner front and rear wood-framed porches with wood-shingled hipped roofs. Between 1923 and 1930, the roof was resheathed in a composite 289 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest material. Between 1937 and 1939, a large one-story addition was added to the rear of the house. The brickframed addition had a flat roof that was clad in a composite material with a 1-foot-high parapet. 59 Miltenberg Street (50 Grossetta Avenue), Residential Structure (No Building Number) This one-story, single-family dwelling, constructed between 1904 and 1909, appeared to have been Folk Victorian in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 165]; see Figures 13– 16) (Sanborn 1909–1952). Located on the southwest corner of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue, the building was oriented north-south, and the front entrance faced north onto Miltenberg Street. Constructed of adobe, the irregular-in-plan building had a wood-framed hipped roof clad in wood shingles. The moderately pitched roof had a wood-framed cornice. Extending above the roofline were two interior chimneys. The residence had wood-framed front and rear porches with wood-shingled roofs. The building’s exterior walls backing the rear porch were clad in brick. Between 1923 and 1930, the dwelling was split on a northto-south axis into two residences, creating a duplex. An additional entrance was created to face east onto Grossetta Avenue. An additional wood-framed porch was constructed on the east facade. The rear porch was enlarged to the south and west, the latter an additional porch room block. The roof was resheathed with a composite material. 48 East Alameda Street, Residential Stable (No Building Number) This one-story building, constructed by 1901, was oriented north-south (see Figure 10) (Sanborn 1901). It had a wood-framed roof clad in wood shingles. It may have had three adobe walls. The front wall that faced north likely consisted of wooden gates. The building served as a stable but was gone by 1904. 55 E. Council (Miltenberg) Street, Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station (Building A) This one-story, T-shaped commercial building, constructed around 1953, was designed by architect James MacMillan (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 27, 28, 29, 47, 48, 62, 63, 64, 65, and 1134]; see Figures 16, 17, and 82) (Sanborn 1957 and 1960). Built as an automobile service station, it was tripartite in plan and oriented north-south on the southwest corner of East Council Street and Grossetta Avenue. It had a central office flanked by two bays accessed by metal interior roll-up doors. The building fronted north onto East Council Street. Mostly concrete-block construction measuring 8 inches thick, it had a partially wood-framed front facade. A flat wood-framed roofed structure supported by metal posts sheltered the gas pumps on the front facade. The roof, of varying heights, was sheathed in a composite material. The office had an entrance on the north facade and two bathrooms with entrances on the south facade. The east bay contained a lift and served as a lubrication center. The west bay was used for washing vehicles and had a pit in the floor, connected to the city sewer, for collecting wastewater. Both side bays had three large windows in the south wall. Two 1,000-gallon underground gasoline tanks were located to the west of the building. By 2005, the gas pumps had been removed. The rear fenestration had been changed by blocking the bathroom doors and one bathroom window and by changing one large window into a door. 290 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 Archaeological Feature Descriptions Animal Burial 3284 Feature 3284, a dog burial, was excavated in a single level, according to the methods used for burials during this project. The feature was a shallow, circular basin identified during mechanical stripping. It measured 14 by 22 inches and was approximately 4 inches deep. The fill was loose, silty sand and the surrounding matrix, Natural Stratum I, was more compact. The remains of the adult canid were largely disarticulated as a result of an unidentified postdepositional process; only a section of the vertebral column was articulated. However, anatomical relationships were generally preserved among the disarticulated elements. The soil around the remains was lightly stained, and metal grommets were recovered along the edge and bottom of the feature, suggesting that the dog had been wrapped in a tarp or fabric bag with drawstring closure prior to burial. Most of the postcranial body was represented, although the bones were fragmentary. Cranial bones were not identified, but there were mandibular and maxillary teeth indicating that the skull had originally been present but that the fragile cranial bones likely crumbled and were lost. Two of the cervical vertebrae were fused together, but the other vertebrae appeared undamaged and without evidence of osteoarthritis. No other pathologies were seen. This feature was marginally intrusive to Grave Pit 3283, a subadult inhumation. However, it was considerably higher in elevation and separated from the burial associated with Grave Pit 3283 by over 2 feet of fill. A similar canid burial (Feature 3285) was located 5 feet northeast of Animal Burial 3284. Animal Burial 3285 Feature 3285, a dog burial, was excavated in a single level, according to methods established for burials during this project (Figure 84), and the exposed remains were mapped using photogrammetry. The feature was a shallow, nearly circular basin identified during mechanical stripping. It measured 29 by 28 inches and was 5 inches deep. The fill and the surrounding matrix, Natural Stratum I, were a very hard, compact, silty sand. The feature ended approximately 12 inches above Natural Stratum II, which was composed of caliche. The remains of the canid were articulated. The body had been placed on its side with the head to the north. Metal grommets were recovered along the edge and bottom of the feature, suggesting that the dog had been wrapped in a tarp or fabric bag with drawstring closure prior to burial. The dog buried in this feature was a large adult. For unknown reasons, the skeleton was fragmentary, but at least some portions of all body regions were represented. Most of the larger front and hind limb bones were present, but only a few phalanges were recovered. The shafts of the second, third, and fourth metacarpals were fused together. It is unclear whether this reflected an injury to the paw or was a congenital condition. The phalanges appeared to be nonpathological, and most carpals were too fragmentary to determine if any pathologies existed. No osteoarthritis was observed on the vertebrae, but the vertebrae were fragmentary. No pathologies were seen in the hind limb bones. This burial also contained two noncanid bones, a single bone from a squirrel-sized mammal and one bone from a rabbit or hare. Building A (55 E. Council (Miltenberg) Street, Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station) Building A (see Figure 81) consisted of a concrete foundation, as well as three concrete slabs, two underground tanks, a trench, and two pieces of machinery. This complex of features collectively measured approximately 100 by 53 feet on an east-west axis. Feature 201, the main foundation associated with Building A, was an east-west-oriented rectangle approximately 50 feet long and 26 feet wide. The wall of the foundation was poured concrete, approximately 1 foot wide. The interior of the building was divided into thirds, with the eastern and western thirds used for 291 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest automobile service and repair bays. Within the eastern service bay was a hydraulic lift (Feature 5184). The middle third of the building was most likely the office, store, and storage. This room had three doorways, one opening near the gas pumps and one opening into each of the repair and service bays. In front (north) of Feature 201 were located the gas pump island and a concrete parking slab. The slab (Feature 202) was a north-south-oriented rectangle about 26 feet long by 19 feet wide. In the middle of this slab was the raised concrete island on which the gas pumps sat. This island (Feature 203) was approximately 17 feet long and 2 feet wide. To the west, centered on the island and halfway under the slab, was an underground storage tank. The pit for this tank (Feature 3120) was oriented east-west and was approximately 14 feet long by 7 feet wide. The pit that was excavated for the second underground storage tank (Feature 582) was about 26 feet by 20 feet and oriented north-south. This tank was located 8 feet west of Foundation 201 and was connected to it by a pipeline (Feature 569). The trench for this pipeline, which was approximately 14 inches wide, ran northeast from the tank to Feature 3120, the other tank associated with Building A. The pipeline then ran east along the length of the island before turning south. The subterranean aspect of the trench ended at the opening of the east service bay and no further extension of this pipeline was noted. Northeast of the main building was a separate concrete slab (Feature 204). Like the eastern bay, this slab had a hydraulic jack (Feature 5185). The slab, which was immediately adjacent to the main building’s northeastern corner, was oriented east-west and was approximately 20 feet long by 12 feet wide. The footprint of Building A’s complex of features intruded on a large number of other features (see Figure 81). The foundation of the main building ran through a historical-period refuse deposit (Feature 750) and over the top of a pit (Feature 3182); further, the floor of the building superimposed Pits 3179 and 3180. Components of the building also superimposed multiple graves (Grave Pits 568, 572, 576, 592, 3116, 3117, 3118, 3121, 3122, 3175, 3176, 3177, 3178, 3211, 3366, 5166, and 5389). Although no disturbances to these features were noted during excavation, it is likely that the construction of Building A intruded upon the upper pits and grave fill. In addition, two utility trenches (Features 565 and 3119) ran south from the main utility lines in Council Street and abutted Feature 201, the main foundation of Building A. A sewer line (Trenches 573 and 574) ran east toward the alleyway. Building P (48 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure) The remains of Building P were discovered during mechanical stripping (see Figure 81). Two sections of the foundation were exposed (Features 4819 and 5041). Foundation 5041 represented the southwest corner of the original structure, and Foundation 4819 represented the northwest corner of the same building. The building foundation was composed of stone and mortar, with basalt blocks consistent with local materials. The foundation was superimposed on two refuse deposits (Features 750 and 3364). These deposits may have represented fill episodes used to level the lot before construction. Building Y (45/55 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure) The archaeological remains of Building Y were designated Feature 586, a foundation exposed during mechanical stripping. This represented the northeast corner of the original building. The foundation was composed of stone and mortar, with basalt blocks consistent with local material. Building Y superimposed a number of graves (Grave Pits 851, 852, 853, and 857), as well as a large pit (Feature 604). During excavation, none of the grave features exhibited any evidence of intrusion; any intrusion would have therefore been limited to the upper fill of these graves. Building Z (46 Grossetta Avenue, Powder Puff Beauty Salon) Building Z was represented by a basalt block and mortar foundation (Feature 3365) exposed during mechanical stripping, which corresponded with the northwest corner of the original structure. The northern wall was over 29 feet long and about 2 feet wide. It was composed of wet-laid basalt blocks consistent with locally quarried materials. Building Z was superimposed on an earlier refuse deposit (Feature 3364). 292 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 Building AA (46 /2 Miltenberg Street, Residential Structure/Garage) 1 Building AA, represented by an adobe foundation (Feature 3335), was discovered during mechanical stripping and represented the northeast corner of the structure. Because of extensive adobe melt, the remains were ephemeral. Cesspit 3042 For a description of Cesspit 3042, see Chapter 16. Landscaping Feature 3374 Feature 3374 was a circular tree pit identified during mechanical stripping. It measured nearly 4 feet in diameter and was approximately 4 inches deep. The fill was yellowish brown silty loam with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was bisected and excavated in two sections. Small amounts of charcoal and one piece of flaked stone were recovered, both likely representative of elements in surrounding deposits. Landscaping Feature 3375 Feature 3375 was a circular tree pit identified during mechanical stripping. It measured 3 feet in diameter and was 1.5 inches deep. The fill was a yellowish brown silty loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was bisected and excavated in sections. No artifacts were recovered. Pit 3180 Feature 3180 was a northeast-southwest-oriented ovoid pit, measuring 1 by 2 feet in plan view and 2 inches deep. It was located within the footprint of Building A. The feature was a shallow basin, excavated into the caliche matrix of Natural Stratum II and filled with a compact, silty loam. Three faunal bones were removed from the fill. Pit 10193 Feature 10193 was a north-south-oriented subrectangular pit, measuring 25.5 by 19 inches in plan view and 24 inches deep. The extant portion of the pit had a steeply sloping western wall, with vertical walls defining the northern and the southern boundaries of the feature. The bottom of the feature was nearly level. The eastern side of the pit was missing, intruded on by a sewer trench (Feature 3377). A natural gas pipeline (Feature 3376) ran directly above the feature from east to west. The fill of Feature 10193 contained small quantities of artifacts within moderately compact, silty loam and included fragments of sewer pipe. Pit 30600 Pit 30600 was an irregularly shaped feature measuring 9 by 6.5 feet and oriented east-west. During the 2001 installation of a fiber-optic line (see Chapter 5, Block 254 Alley), archaeologists from Tierra Rightof-Way Services recovered human remains (Allen 2001; Zaglauer and Doak 2003) that probably originated in Grave Pit 28339. Pit 30600 represented the disturbance caused by the construction of the fiber-optic line and Tierra’s excavations. 293 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Posthole 4565 Feature 4565 was a posthole identified during mechanical stripping, measuring 18.5 by 17 inches. It intruded into the east half of Grave Pit 3237, disturbing the femurs and tibiae of the burial. The fill was a yellowish brown silty loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was excavated in a single level and was not bisected. It contained historical-period refuse, as well as wood and human bone from the disturbed burial. Refuse Deposit 750 Feature 750 was an amorphous north-south-oriented refuse deposit, possibly representing a preresidential borrow pit. It measured 19 by 15 feet and was 13 inches deep. The feature fill was highly ashy and filled with household refuse. The artifacts were predominantly cut bone and historical-period indigenous pottery. This fill rested on Natural Stratum I. There were a number of features related to Refuse Deposit 750; the related features indicated that Feature 750 predated the residential period on the lot. Feature 4819, a basalt foundation, was located within the southern extent of the deposit and partially overlaid it. Also, a northeast-southwest-oriented sewer pipe (Feature 749) intruded from the west. These intrusions showed that Refuse Deposit 750 was significantly beneath the historical ground surface during the residential period. A trench for the foundation of Building A during the commercial period also intruded into this feature. Several strategies were employed during the excavation of Refuse Deposit 750. First, a test pit was excavated in the southeastern quadrant of the feature. Following this, the extent of the basalt foundation (Feature 4819) was determined through hand trenching along the wall. Because the test pit indicated the feature was shallow and unstratified, the rest of the feature was then removed in a single level using shovels. Refuse Deposit 3340 Feature 3340 was an amorphous refuse deposit, measuring 6.5 feet in diameter and 18 inches deep. The feature fill contained ash and artifacts consistent with household refuse, as well as small to medium-sized basalt boulders and adobe bricks. This fill sat on but did not continue into Natural Stratum II caliche. Refuse Deposit 3340 was discovered during mechanical stripping and was pedestalled by the backhoe. The feature’s sides sloped away from the middle, ending in a thin smear just above the level of the underlying caliche. The excavation of the feature was carried out in two levels, based on the stratigraphy of the feature. Level 1 consisted of heavy, stained, organic fill from the center of the pit, and Level 2 represented the remaining fill, including most of the adobe bricks and basalt stones. Level 2 ended at the intact caliche horizon. The fill of Refuse Deposit 3340 was similar to that at the top of Cesspit 3042, upon which its southern edge was superimposed. The feature was also stratigraphically beneath Feature 3085, the foundation of the northern wall of the automobile dealership at 46 E. Alameda Street, indicating it predated the commercial period. Refuse Deposit 3364 Feature 3364 was a large, amorphous, east-west-oriented refuse deposit, possibly a preresidential borrow pit. It measured 50 by 36 feet and was 7.5 inches deep. The feature fill was highly ashy and contained an abundance of historical-period refuse. The fill was deposited on a culturally sterile layer. During the excavation of Refuse Deposit 3364, two intrusive building foundations were exposed (Features 3365 and 5041). A northwest-southeast sewer trench (Feature 748) also intruded on the feature from the northwest. Like Refuse Deposit 750, these intrusions indicate that Refuse Deposit 3364 was significantly beneath the historical ground surface during the residential period and thus probably predated it. 294 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 Refuse Pit 746 Feature 746 was a semicircular east-west-oriented refuse pit. It measured 55 by 49 inches in plan view and was 10 inches deep. The pit was excavated into compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The fill of the feature was silty loam and contained household refuse, food bone, and a discrete secondary deposit of human remains from an unknown context. Refuse Pit 746 was located adjacent to the northwest corner of Refuse Pit 2045, which held another secondary burial representing the same individual. Because of the presence of human remains, the feature was excavated according to burial methodology for this project, and the whole feature was removed in a single level. Refuse Pit 2045 Feature 2045 was a circular refuse pit measuring 35 inches in diameter and 16 inches deep. The pit was excavated into compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The fill of the feature was silty loam containing abundant ash and charcoal, domestic refuse, cut bone, and a secondary deposit of human remains. Refuse Pit 2045 was adjacent to the southeast corner of Refuse Pit 746, which contained a secondary deposit of human remains from the same individual. Because of the presence of human remains the feature was excavated according to burial methodology for this project, and the whole feature was removed in a single level. The remains and cultural materials were recovered from a basin-shaped layer within the fill. This layer was distinct from the lower fill of the feature in both the distribution of artifacts and the color. The upper fill, containing most of the artifacts, was grayish brown. The lower fill, which was largely sterile, was brownish yellow. The floor of the feature was somewhat irregular. Refuse Pit 2246 Feature 2246 was a circular refuse pit measuring 14.5 by 12.5 inches in plan view and 7 inches deep. The feature was filled with sandy clay loam as well as household refuse, including metal, ceramics, and cut bone. Within the fill, there were also pieces of charcoal and orange soil, potentially indicating an in situ thermal event. The pit intruded into the northwestern corner of a grave (Grave Pit 3177) but did not impact the coffin or the burial. Most of Refuse Pit 2246 was excavated into the grave fill, but the northern extent was excavated into the caliche of Natural Stratum II. Because of the disturbance of the grave pit, the refuse pit was excavated as a single level. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Block 254, Lot 4 The artifact collection from Block 254, Lot 4, did not include items from the following categories: ceramic tablewares, glass and metal tablewares, footwear, communications, or commerce. The single stratigraphic layer of Refuse Deposit 3340 held a minimum of 15 glass and metal food/beverage containers, including 3 bottles, 10 jars, and 2 cans. Twenty-two bottle/jar closures were also recovered. Of those vessels with identifiable technology, most were hand-finished (60 percent, n = 9). Most bottle and jar contents remain unidentified. Evidence of a Heinz ketchup bottle (Zumwalt 1980:203) and a milk bottle were found; the other bottles were not identified. Bottle closures included at least 17 crown caps. One condiment jar, embossed “BEST FOODS/REGISTERED”, and a preserves jar were recovered. The preserves jar was produced by the Hazel Atlas Glass Company between 1923 and 1964 (Whitten 2009). Some home canning was practiced by residents as evidenced by at least 8 canning jars. Three varieties of Kerr canning jars were identified, including “KE[RR]/ SE[LF SEALING]/ MASO[N]” produced between 1915 and 1919, “Kerr/ ‘SELF SEALING’/ TRADEMARK REG/PAT. AUG 31, 1915/MASON”, and “KERR GLASS MFC CO SAND SPRINGS OKLA”, dating to 1912–1946 (Toulouse 1971:306). Ball made 3 of the canning jars 295 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest from 1900 to 1915 (Toulouse 1969:169, 37). Jar closures included a metal screw cap and three milk-glass lid liners. Metal can contents could not be identified. A sanitary can was present, and one key-opened can might have held processed meat or coffee. Two shards from at least one “black glass” wine or champagne bottle were identified in Refuse Pit 3340. The refuse pit yielded sew-through buttons and snaps. Sizes suggested use of lingerie, shirts, dresses, and pants. Clothing fasteners in this feature indicated men’s and women’s casual/work clothing. No clothing fabric was recovered. Its single stratigraphic layer contained a number of personal artifacts. Jewelry was represented by blue glass and bone beads and a nonferrous small-gauge necklace chain. Neck chains were advertised in period catalogs and sold from 16 to 94 cents in 1906 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:96). A hard-rubber dressing comb fragment was recovered. Rubber tubing fragments would have been used with a hot-water bottle and fountain syringes for douching/enemas. Other personal artifacts recovered from Refuse Deposit 3340 were a ferrous curling iron and pocket-watch fragments. This type of curling iron was designed to be heated in a kerosene lamp chimney and was advertised in 1902 selling from 3 to 11 cents (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1902:935). The face of the pocket watch had “ELGIN NAT’L WATCH CO/ USA” printed on it. A fragment of a movement frame was engraved with the serial number “X44571”. Elgin has been producing watches since 1864 (Elgin Watches Database). According to the Online Elgin Serial Number Database, the serial number on this watch dated to either 1938 or 1939. One medicine bottle and eight bottle fragments (MVC = 1) were recovered from Refuse Deposit 3340. The density of medicinal glass in this feature was 0.52 per cubic foot (0.015/m³). A complete, machinemade Bayer aspirin bottle (post-1897) was the only datable medicine vessel in this feature (Holden 1999). Manufacturing techniques were not observed on the fragments. Refuse Deposit 3340 contained a mouth harp instrument, six stoneware marbles, one porcelain sherd from a toy saucer, part of a metal toy train track, and three fragments of a parian doll face. Also recovered were two smoking-related artifacts: part of the midsection of a red kaolin pipe stem and a plastic pipe stem with nonferrous-metal tubing. The modern plastic pipe stem shell was hand painted in multiple colors with “CHUCK” on one side and a skull-and-crossbones on the other. Weaponry artifacts included nine shotgun shells designed for 12- and 16-gauge sporting rifles. These artifacts consisted of three 12-gauge high-velocity shells made by the Peters Cartridge Company (1868–1919) and six 16-gauge shells made by the Peters Company and the Western Cartridge Company (1898–1908) (Goodman 1998:n.p.). The 16-gauge is comparable to the 12-gauge and continues to be made today, but improvements on the 12-gauge have made this shell relatively obsolete (Barnes 2006:500). Refuse Deposit 3340 also contained six transportation-related artifacts including three harness rivets, a harness snap, a harness buckle, and an automobile piston head. Three features on Block 254, Lot 4, yielded a total of 255 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts. A wire nail, a cut nail, and 10 grommets were the only construction artifacts recovered from two animal burials on this lot (Features 3284 and 3285). The grommets were recovered from Feature 3284, and some had attached fragments from a canvas tarp or bag in which the animal had been buried. The remaining 242 construction and hardware artifacts came from Refuse Deposit 3340. Nails and nail fragments (n = 195) made up 81 percent of the construction artifacts. Two nail fragments in this feature were from cut nails and the rest were wire nails and nail fragments. Complete common wire nails (n = 93) were 2d (n = 4), 3d (n = 7), 4d (n = 10), 5d (n = 12), 6d (n = 11), 8d (n = 24), 9d (n = 5), 10d (n = 7), 16d (n = 3), and 20d (n = 10). Mortar and plaster fragments (n = 20), electrical flexible tubing fragments (n = 7), window glass (n = 7), screws (n = 5), and fragments of an electrical switch handle (n = 2) made up most of the remaining construction and hardware artifacts in Refuse Deposit 3340. Some of the mortar was still attached to small brick fragments. The remains of a medium-grained bastard file with two different gradations, a rat-tail file, and fragments of a whetstone were also recovered from this feature. Two fragments of a metal port for a lightbulb, seven pieces of flexible electrical tubing, and one rubber handle—likely a switch handle to an electrical device—were recovered from excavations in Refuse Deposit 3340. The single stratigraphic layer of Refuse Deposit 3340 yielded several household artifacts. An appliance part was an air-adjustment vent for a wood/coal stove. A clothespin spring, five carpet tacks, and an undecorated ferrous keyhole plate to a desk or drawer were found. At least one bottle was found that once contained liquid glue—it had paper label fragments that read “LePage’s Liquid Glue.” The brand was advertised in Butler Brother’s 1921 catalog (Butler Brother’s 1921:130) selling for $1.60 a dozen. A gold-plated candlestick fragment and coal fragments were recovered. The refuse deposit also yielded fragments of a colorlessglass desk caddy with pressed horizontal ribbing and a ferrous curtain-rod finial. 296 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 A fairly diverse array of faunal species was identified from within this deposit. All or nearly all the species identified, from various birds (both wild and domestic) to small wild mammals to far larger domesticated ones, were probably food items (Table 42). In terms of birds, we identified turkey, chicken, and a species of dove. All identified bird bones were present in nearly equal numbers between identified taxa, whether based on NISP or MNI estimates. In addition to these birds, there were variously sized unidentifiable specimens as well as eggshell. Much more abundant, however, were elements from cattle and deer-sized mammals (probably sheep), in addition to a few pig and even-toed-hoofed mammal (order Artiodactyla) bones. The cattle and cattle-sized mammal bones from this feature showed a mix of cuts from both limbs (large roasts) and the lower spinal column (steaks). Sheep/goat and similarly sized mammal bones from this context consisted principally of axial element steaks and ribs and a lesser amount of roasts from limbs. Pork cuts, on the other hand, were all large rounds sawn from the hind limb, in other words, hams. This collection also included several bones of rabbit or rabbit-sized animals, also observed in about half the analyzed features. Despite the relatively small sample recovered from this deposit, Refuse Deposit 3340 contained a fairly diverse collection of marine shellfish species, including one type of bivalve and three types of gastropods (Table 43). The Lewis’ moon snail likely originated in the Pacific Ocean. Three types of marine shells inhabiting the east coast were recovered from the feature and included the variable coquina, an edible soft-shell clam variety, as well as nonedible varieties of the four-tooth nerite and the gray Atlantic auger. Although the refuse deposit contained ash, none of the invertebrate remains appeared to have been burned. Charred wood remains were the only macrobotanically identified plant in Refuse Deposit 3340. The wood was from an indeterminate member of the Cupressus/Juniperus (cypress/juniper) genera, which was commonly used as lumber and in manufacturing. Block 254, Lot 5 No ceramic tablewares were represented among artifacts from this lot. A total of 22 nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts (MVC = 9) was recovered from Refuse Pit 746 and Refuse Deposits 750 and 752. Each feature on this lot had a single stratigraphic unit. Eighty-six percent of nonceramic artifacts on this lot were glass, and Refuse Deposit 752 was the only feature with metal tableware items. Refuse Pit 746 contained the fewest tableware artifacts: 2 shards from a marbled orange-and-white decorative vessel. Refuse Deposit 752 yielded the remains of 4 tableware items: a glass tumbler, a shot glass, a metal saucepan handle, and a colorless pressed-glass salt or pepper shaker with a diamond decorative pattern. Refuse Deposit 750 had 14 fragments from 3 tumblers and a shot glass. The greatest concentration of historical-period Native American ceramics from the Joint Courts Complex project area were recovered from Features 742, 750, 752, and 3364 on Block 254, Lots 4 and 5. Approximately 80 percent (n = 373) of the 466 sherds on this property were Papago Red. About 62 percent (n = 288) of all Native American ceramic sherds were from ollas. This property had a number of owners from 1890 until the 1930s and was a rental property throughout that entire period, which means a number of persons called this address home. Although it is unknown if Native Americans resided at this location, a number of Southern Pacific Railroad employees lived here during the historical period. The presence of Native American ceramic sherds is very loosely correlated to households with Southern Pacific employees, who traveled throughout the American Southwest as part of their job and most likely collected a number of tourist ceramic vessels. This phenomenon is addressed more thoroughly in Appendix N. A minimum of seven glass and metal food/beverage containers, including five bottles and two cans, were recovered from Block 254, Lot 5. Six bottle/jar closures were also represented. Overall, the density of food/beverage containers on this lot was low, with most derived from Feature 752 (71 percent, n = 5). All food/beverage glass with identifiable technology was hand-finished. Refuse Pit 2045 produced can fragments, including at least one sanitary can. Refuse Deposit 750 yielded bottle shards representing at least one soft-drink bottle and a whole club sauce condiment bottle. No temporally diagnostic food/beverage containers were found in Refuse Deposit 750. Feature 752 held complete and fragmented bottles, cans, and bottle closures. Most bottles had unidentified contents. Evidence of at least one bright green soda-pop bottle was found. Bottle closures included a glass Lea & Perrins’ Worcestershire sauce stopper and a cork. At least one hole-in-cap can was present. Although some of the artifacts recovered from this feature entered production as early as 1820, long before this lot was occupied, food and beverage containers that were temporally diagnostic indicated deposition between the initial occupation of the lot and when the lot was developed for commercial use. 297 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest A total of 167 alcohol-bottle shards from only nine vessels was recovered from all features on this lot. The refuse deposits contained the most alcohol-bottle shards. Refuse Deposit 750 had 50 percent (n = 83; MVC = 3) of all alcohol-container fragments and Refuse Deposit 752 contained 38 percent (n = 63; MVC = 2). The refuse pits yielded 13 percent (n = 21; MVC = 4) of all fragments on this lot, but Refuse Pit 2045 only contained a single wine or champagne bottle shard. Wine or champagne bottles and fragments made up about 48 percent (n = 81) of alcohol shards on this lot and represented at least five vessels. Beer bottle shards from three vessels were 29 percent (n = 48), and distilled spirits made up 23 percent (n = 38) of alcohol-bottle shards and all were from a single bottle. Refuse Pit 746 contained 20 alcohol-bottle shards representing three bottles. Eighty percent (n = 16) of these were from a single wine or champagne bottle and 20 percent (n = 4) were from two beer bottles. Sherds from a stoneware English ale bottle were also observed along with the remains of the lead foil wrapper typically used on champagne or wine bottles. No distilled-spirits bottle fragments were collected, and no datable fragments were observed, although the beer bottles had evidence of hand tooling. Refuse Pit 752 contained the second-most alcohol-bottle shards on this lot (n = 63), representing only two vessels. Sixty percent (n = 38) were from a distilled-spirits bottle and 40 percent (n = 25) were from a wine or champagne bottle. No beer bottle shards were collected. A bottle that once contained Duffy’s Whiskey (1886–1917) was recovered indicating the feature could have been deposited any time after 1886 (Wilson and Wilson 1968:63). Finally, Refuse Pit 750 contained 50 percent (n = 83) of the alcohol-bottle shards on this lot, and they came from three vessels. Fifty-three percent (n = 44) of shards from this feature were from a beer bottle and 47 percent (n = 39) were from two wine or champagne bottles. No bottle shards from distilled spirits were recovered from this feature. Although no datable artifacts were observed, the wine and champagne bottle shards were hand tooled, and the beer shards had characteristics of machine manufacture. Two refuse pits (Features 2045 and 746) and two refuse deposits (Features 750 and 752) yielded complete and fragmented clothing fasteners. The bulk of the sample from this lot was recovered from Refuse Deposit 752. Undecorated buttons were the most-prevalent clothing fastener, and both men’s and women’s clothing was indicated. No clothing fabric was recovered. Refuse Pit 2045 yielded sew-through buttons and a cinch buckle. Sizes of buttons indicated use on lingerie, dress shirts, and babies’ clothing. Refuse Pit 746 yielded sew-through buttons; sizes indicated use on lingerie, dress shirts, and/or babies’ clothing and standard men’s shirts. Refuse Deposit 750 yielded an unidentified-metal shank button, sew-through buttons, and a hook. Sizes suggested that the sew-through buttons were used for a shirt. The unidentified-metal shank button may have been used on a vest, and the hook was probably used to fasten a garter. Refuse Deposit 752 yielded a cloth-covered button and sew-through buttons, snaps, and corset hardware (stays and eyelets). The button sizes indicated use on lingerie, dress shirts, shirts, dresses, vests, or pants. The snaps and corset hardware represented women’s undergarments. Two features in Block 254, Lot 5, contained artifacts representing at least three different shoes. Refuse Pit 746 produced a single brass eyelet from a lacing plate. Refuse Deposit 752 produced over 80 fragments representing at least two leather shoes: one man’s shoe in a wide width with a rectangular toe, and one smaller shoe likely belonging to a woman. Original color could not be determined for any of the leather fragments. Refuse Pits 2045 and 746 and Refuse Deposits 750 and 752 held personal artifacts consisting of jewelry, beauty/cosmetic items, and health/hygiene. The bulk of personal artifacts on this lot were recovered from Refuse Deposit 750. Refuse Deposit 750 contained fragments of at least one bottle, embossed “AYER/17”; it originally held hair tonic—“Ayer’s Hair Vigor - For Restoring Gray Hair to its natural Vitality & Color” (Fike 2006:153). This product was manufactured between 1876 and the 1930s (Fike 2006:122). A black glass bead may have come from a necklace, bracelet, or earring. Blue glass beads from at least one piece of jewelry were recovered from Refuse Pit 2045. Shards represented a minimum of one milk-glass jar from Refuse Pit 746 and one toothpaste bottle embossed “[VAN] BUSKIRK’S//FOR TEETH/AND BREATH” from Refuse Deposit 752. Van Buskirk’s was on the market between 1865 and 1930 (Fike 2006:184). Medicine bottles and fragments were recovered from Refuse Deposits 746, 750, and 752. A total of 51 medicinal glass artifacts (MVC = 15) was collected from features on this lot. Thirty-five percent (n = 18; MVC = 5) were excavated from Feature 750 and 63 percent (n = 32; MVC = 9) came from Feature 752. Refuse Pit 746 yielded a single mineral-water bottle with a Hutchinson spring stopper embossed “J.F.I./ TUCSON”. According to the Tucson city directories, this company was in operation between 1899 and 1917. No completely machine-made artifacts were identified, but 76 percent (n = 39; MVC = 19) of artifacts on this lot were hand-finished, and the manufacturing technique was unidentified for 24 percent (n = 12; MVC = 5). On this lot, the density of medicine bottles was highest in Feature 750 (5.66 per cubic foot or 0.16/m³). Artifact density in Feature 752 was 5.33 per cubic foot (0.15/m³). 298 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 Although no medicinal products or bottle makers’ marks were identified in Feature 750, four products and manufacturers were identified in Feature 752. Joy’s Sarsaparilla (1874–1915) was marketed as a blood purifier and kidney and liver medicine (Fike 2006:218). A bottle marked “Warner’s Safe” is associated with a number of medicinal products made by H. H. Warner and Company (1879–1948) (Fike 2006:107). Dr. J. G. B. Siegbert and Hijos (1872–1958) were the inventors and makers of Angostura Bitters, which was considered a medicine in the late nineteenth century (Fike 2006:42). Angostura Bitters is still sold today, primarily as a food and beverage flavoring agent. Three mineral-water bottles embossed “J. F. I Tucson” (1899–1917) that were identical to the water bottle from Refuse Pit 746 were also recovered from Refuse Deposit 752. Two refuse deposit features in Block 254, Lot 5, produced four recreational artifacts. Feature 750 contained two porcelain sherds from a toy saucer, and Feature 752 held half of an unglazed, coarse earthenware marble and a small fragment of a porcelain doll leg. Refuse Deposit 752 also produced two fragments of a bowl from a kaolin smoking pipe, one of which was marked with the letter “D”. This letter may have been part of the mark “T D”, which appeared on pipes produced by a number of different companies during the late nineteenth century (Petruzelli 2002). Forty-nine communication-related artifacts were recovered from four refuse deposit/pit features in Block 254, Lot 5. Refuse Deposit 750 produced two fragments of a slate writing board. Refuse Deposit 752 produced part of a conical-shaped aqua-glass ink bottle, two fragments of a soapstone stylus, and 32 fragments of lead and cuprous metal from a linotype or monotype machine. A single piece of pencil lead was excavated from Refuse Pit 2045, and 10 typesetter parts and a single writing stylus fragment were recovered from Refuse Pit 746. A corroded shotgun shell was the only weaponry artifact recovered from Refuse Deposit 750. The gauge and manufacturer of this shell remains unknown. Refuse Deposit 752 produced a complete but partially melted U.S. dime. The date stamp on this coin was illegible. Half of a horseshoe and a complete horseshoe were the transportation-related artifacts in Refuse Deposit 752. These were the only transportation artifacts identified on Block 254, Lot 5. Construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in features on Block 254, Lot 5, suggested that some refuse pits were used for domestic refuse and others were repositories of sediments containing architectural debris deposited after the residential period. Three refuse pits (Features 746, 2045, and 2246) and two refuse deposits (Features 750 and 752) on this lot yielded 641 construction artifacts. Refuse pits on this lot contained about 15 percent (n = 94) of the construction artifacts and had a combined artifact density of 5.05 per cubic foot (0.14/m³). When combined, the two refuse deposits produced most of the construction and hardware artifacts on this lot (n = 547) and had a combined artifact density of 58.6 per cubic foot (1.64/ m³). Refuse Deposit 750 contained 22 percent (n = 140) of construction artifacts at a density of 44.0 per cubic foot (1.23/m³). Refuse Deposit 752 yielded 63 percent (n = 407) of construction artifacts. Artifacts were most dense in this feature at 67.8 per cubic foot (1.9/m³). The disparity in construction-artifact density between the three refuse pits and the two refuse deposits suggests that their primary functions were different. The pits were probably used for household refuse disposal. Refuse deposits on this lot appear to have been filled with sediments that contained much architectural debris (perhaps from demolition) and were not intended as domestic refuse repositories. Construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in Refuse Pits 746, 2045, and 2246 were overwhelmingly wire nails and nail fragments. Of the 93 construction artifacts recovered from these three features, 81 were nails and nail fragments. Twenty-two percent (n = 18) of nails were cut nails and cut nail fragments. The remainder was wire nails. Window glass (n = 10), an alligator clip, and a screw were the other construction artifacts recovered from these three features. Refuse Deposit 750 contained 140 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts, 69 percent (n = 97) of which were wire nails. Whole wire nails were all common, and measured 3d (n = 1), 4d (n = 1), 8d (n = 2), and 9d (n = 1). No cut nails were identified in this feature. Window glass made up 17 percent (n = 24) of construction and hardware artifacts. The remaining construction-related artifacts in this feature included mortar and concrete fragments (n = 10), electrical wire fragments (n = 4), a screw, a fragment of ceramic flooring tile decorated with a light blue and white chevron pattern, and a piece of plumbing pipe. Refuse Deposit 752 contained the largest number of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts (n = 407) on Block 254, Lot 5. Sixty percent (n = 246) of these artifacts were nails and nail fragments, which included 15 cut and 231 fragmentary wire nails. The only complete wire nail was a 9d common nail. Window glass fragments (n = 82) made up 20 percent of construction artifacts in this feature. Other hardware, including rivets (n = 3), washers (n = 2), electrical wire fragments (n = 2), rubber electrical housing fragments (n = 2), and miscellaneous ferrous straps and rods (n = 63), made up 18 percent (n = 72) of artifacts. Plumbing pipe fragments (n = 4) and lavender-glazed ceramic flooring-tile (n = 2) were also recovered from this feature. Twenty-two artifacts relating to lighting and electricity were recovered from excavations in four refuse disposal features 299 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest in Block 254, Lot 5. Refuse Deposit 750 contained eight colorless-glass shards of a lamp chimney, Refuse Deposit 752 held one colorless-glass lamp-chimney shard and two pieces of rubber wiring, Refuse Pit 2045 produced three colorless-glass lamp-chimney shards, and Refuse Pit 746 produced seven colorless-glass lamp-chimney shards and half of a small, nonferrous electrical clip. One refuse pit (Feature 746) and Refuse Deposits 750 and 752 included household artifacts consisting of appliance parts, containers, and hardware. Refuse Pit 746 contained mica fragments from an oven door, and sherds of at least two vases: one relief-molded semivitreous white-bodied earthenware example and a banded nonvitreous white-bodied vase. Refuse Deposit 750 contained a sad iron fragment. Sad irons were advertised in the 1902 Sears catalog, selling from 18 to 32 cents (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1902:571). A colorless-glass vase fragment with pink, yellow, white, and green “string” enameling was also recovered. Refuse Deposit 752 contained a fragment of a ferrous drawer pull. Similar to other refuse deposits in the project area, Refuse Pit 746 contained mainly bones from deer and cattle-sized animals, together accounting for 82 percent of all bones from the context (Table 44). Only a few bones from any other taxa were identified in this sample. These consisted of a small number of bird bones, including an unidentified duck species (a single individual) and eggshell. Also included in the collection were rabbit bones and a few elements from large bobcat or dog-sized animals. A surprisingly large collection of faunal remains was excavated from Refuse Deposit 750 (see Table 44). Unfortunately, although the collection was large, it was of more limited utility than the samples recovered from some of the other features, as it was not as well preserved. The bones were found in a generally poor state of preservation which left us unable to identify most of them beyond very general taxonomic categories, such as mammal or bird, sometimes with body-size estimates but more often without. Those taxa which could be identified mainly included sheep, sheep/goats, sheep/goat-sized mammals, pigs and cow-sized mammals. Although bird bones were also identified, only chickens and a turkey were identifiable beyond the class level. Chickens were quite a bit more prevalent than turkey, as indicated by the MNI estimates (see Table 44). It should be noted that a number of eggshell fragments were also recovered from this feature, but these were neither taxonomically identifiable nor quantifiable in terms of the number of eggs the pieces represented. Refuse Pit 2045 contained a small sample of bones, over half of which came from squirrel-sized mammals (see Table 44). Those bones could be considered either food remains, if they were indeed from squirrels, or incidental remains from burrowing rodents such as gophers. Several other rodent bones were in this collection, which favored a nonfood explanation, by association, for the aforementioned elements. In addition to a few bones of birds and an eggshell fragment, the remainder of the bones from this context came from cattle or sheep/goat-sized mammals, as would be expected in a deposit of household refuse. In terms of faunal remains recovered, Refuse Pit 3364 had the largest quantity from all unstratified deposits investigated during the Joint Courts Complex project. More than half of the faunal remains taken from all features in Lot 5 were recovered from this feature (see Table 44). This feature was unique among the unstratified features in the fact that it contained household refuse and also the partial skeleton of a dog or coyote. Most of the body was represented—from cranial bones to the phalanges. The only other taxons of significance in terms of numbers were amphibian elements, possibly represented by more than one species. The only identifiable element of the latter bones came from a Colorado River Toad. That animal, and the animals represented by the other amphibian bones (if they were not all from one individual), probably entered the deposit in some accidental manner. Refuse Deposit 746 contained a single marine-shell fragment of unidentifiable taxon, and Refuse Deposit 752, part of the larger refuse pit, Feature 3364, contained two types of edible bivalves found along the Pacific Coast—Pacific giant oyster and Pismo clam (see Table 43). Charred mesquite wood fragments were identified in Refuse Deposit 750. Mesquite was a locally available fuel that was identified on most lots across the Joint Courts Complex project area. Chronology, Correlation, and Summary In summary, the artifactual data from Block 254, Lot 4, were limited to Refuse Deposit 3340. The refuse deposit was composed of a single stratigraphic layer and may, in fact, have been associated with the residence on Lot 6 to the south (see discussion of Block 254, Lot 6, Chapter 16). Archaeological evidence suggested that liquid may have flowed from Refuse Deposit 3340 into Cesspit 3042 in Lot 6. Diagnostic artifacts from Feature 3340 bore production dates ranging between 1868 and 1964; however, a pocket watch produced in 300 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 1938 or 1939 suggests that deposition in the feature happened during the 1940s or later. This would place the feature within the Rasmessen occupation of 57 Miltenberg Street or the later rental period. Food and beverage containers from Refuse Deposit 3340 included those that once contained condiments and a number of canning jars suggesting that at least one household preserved foods at home. The containers ranged in production dates between 1900 and 1964. Only one liquor bottle fragment was found; it was from a “black glass” wine or champagne bottle that was common during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth centuries (Jones and Sullivan 1989:14), manufactured particularly for wines and beers bottled in England (Jones 1986). The presence of a bottle dating to the early nineteenth century or older remains unexplained; it may have been an antique or heirloom piece or obtained as a curiosity. The only medicine represented by containers from this feature was Bayer aspirin, which was introduced in 1897. Although it is not possible to positively assign Refuse Deposit 3340 to a particular household on either Lot 4 or Lot 6, some demographic information about the household can be deduced from the material culture. Clothing fasteners from the feature indicated the presence of both men’s and women’s garments. An oillamp-heated curling iron, a necklace chain, and a pocket watch were recovered. Fragments of two smoking pipes were found; however, one of these dated from modern times. The presence of children was deduced from several toys in the collection, including marbles and fragments of play dishes, dolls, and a train. Some household activities were revealed by artifacts from the feature. Transportation artifacts included five harness parts and one automobile part. Standard household chores—cooking and washing—were represented by a wood stove fragment and a clothespin. A bit of information about the residence was also revealed by carpet tacks and a gold-plated candlestick. Refuse Deposit 3340 yielded an array of faunal species indicating that the residents had access to meat from both hunted and farm-raised animals. Nine shotgun shells were present; these were manufactured from 1868 to 1919, and 1898 to 1908. The feature also produced a variety of invertebrate remains. Considering the small collection, it is uncertain whether the two edible varieties, the variable coquina and Lewis’ moon snail, were in fact consumed. It is possible that some, if not all, of the shells represented beachcombing or natural-history seashell collections. It is also possible that some of the shells, such as the four-tooth nerite or the gray Atlantic auger, may have been attached to other shells that were transported to the site. Finally, charred wood remains were the only macrobotanically identified plant in Refuse Deposit 3340. The wood was from an indeterminate member of the Cupressus/Juniperus (cypress/juniper) genera, which was commonly used as lumber and in manufacturing. All of the features on Block 254, Lot 5, were composed of single stratigraphic units; consequently, little can be said with regard to the material culture or activities of individual households on that lot, and even temporal assignment is impossible in the absence of artifacts yielding definitive production dates. Only one temporally diagnostic artifact was recovered from Refuse Deposit 750—a hair dye bottle for a product produced from 1876 into the 1930s. Some demographic information and household events are hinted at among the artifacts. Corsetry hardware and a toy saucer suggested the presence of a woman and child in one of the households that created the feature. One soft-drink bottle was present, and although no liquor containers were identified, a shot glass suggested that alcoholic beverages were consumed during one of the occupations. A black glass bead may have been an example of mourning jewelry. Artifacts from Refuse Deposit 752 suggested the presence of a man, woman, and child in the contributing household(s). Fragments of both men’s and women’s shoes were recovered, along with a marble, doll fragment, and smoking pipe fragment. Hygiene and home health care were represented by containers for toothpaste, a blood/liver treatment, Angostura Bitters, and other medicines. The containers were produced between 1872 and 1958. Fragments of an oil lamp and two horseshoes suggested deposition during the early years of occupation on this lot, before the neighborhood was electrified and automobile ownership was common. Of interest was the recovery of numerous fragments of a linotype or monotype machine, which will be discussed in more detail below. The two shellfish fragments were probably food remains, as fresh seafood was sold daily in Tucson meat markets of this period. Based on the establishment of the Pacific giant oyster industry along the West Coast, the presence of the Pacific giant oyster in Refuse Deposit 752 indicates the refuse deposit was used, in part, sometime after 1902. However, it is within Refuse Deposit 3364 that the population’s reliance on beef as the staple meat was made most clear. Two-thirds of the bones were identified as belonging to cattle or to cow-sized mammals. Pigs made up only a very small proportion of the remainder, and sheep, goats, and sheep- or-goatsized mammals a slightly larger percentage. Other remains represented several chickens, a rock dove, and chicken-sized birds. 301 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Although not yielding artifacts that were diagnostic as to date of manufacture, it can be said that deposition in Refuse Pit 746 spanned the transition from oil to electric lighting around 1893. Ten typesetter’s tiles were recovered. It is unclear whether the single unidentified marine-shell fragment represented food remains, was part of a beachcombing or natural-history seashell collection, or was inadvertently transported to the site attached to another shell. Refuse Pit 2045 yielded little in the way of temporally diagnostic artifacts, but some information could be gleaned regarding household residents. Two horseshoes and oil lamp fragments suggested that the deposit was created early in the residential period. Some evidence of the preresidential period on Block 254, Lot 4, was identified in the form of borrow pits and reinterred human remains. Two borrow pits (Features 750 and 3364) likely predated the residential period, and these were filled in with refuse during the grading process, prior to building on the lot. The earliest owners of the lot (Mariscal and Fairbanks) used the area as a corral, and undoubtedly, sheet refuse collected on it. This information, along with artifactual data, indicates that the borrow pits were filled during the transition to residential use, when houses were built along Grossetta Avenue. Two dog burials remain unassociated and could have been related to one of several nearby households. The residential period was represented by the archaeological remains of several houses, refuse deposits, utility trenches, and tree pits. The features contained little that could be used to achieve a concise date of deposition, although overall, production dates for artifacts on Lot 5 ranged from 1865 to 1958. The features contained a variety of domestic refuse in relatively small quantities and construction debris in greater quantity. Of interest was the presence of typesetter’s tiles and typesetting machinery parts in two features (Refuse Pit 746 and Refuse Deposit 752). Between 1943 and 1953, Ted S. Wallace, a printer for Tucson Newspapers, Inc., lived at 48 Grossetta Avenue. The residence was located roughly in the middle of Lot 5, and the features would have been behind the residence. It remains unknown why the tools of his trade made their way to Wallace’s backyard; perhaps he scavenged outdated tools for possible reuse or the items may have been discarded by a later resident. 302 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 Figure 81. Block 254, Lots 4 and 5, with adjacent Council Street. 303 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 82. Gas station at inception of project. 304 Figure 83. Rudolph Rassmessen, owner of Block 254, Lots 4 and 5, 1927–1941, and mayor from 1921 to 1924 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, No. B90798). Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 Figure 84. Dog Burial, Feature 3285, Block 254, Lot 4. 305 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 42. Faunal Remains from Block 254, Lot 4 Common Name Feature 3284 NISP % Feature 3285 NISP % Feature 3340 NISP % Total NISP % Wild/domestic turkey — — 1 1 1 <1 Domestic chicken — — 1 1 1 <1 White-winged dove — — 3 2 3 <1 6 4 6 1 Turkey-sized bird Chicken-sized bird — — 10 7 10 1 Quail- or dove-sized bird — — 2 1 2 <1 2 1 2 <1 1 1 1 4 1 <1 Songbird-sized bird Bird, size indeterminate — — Squirrel-sized mammal — 1 <1 — Rabbit or hare — 1 <1 1 1 2 <1 Cottontail rabbit — — 2 1 2 <1 Rabbit-sized mammal — — 9 6 9 1 6 315 45 180 26 Dog or coyote 1 1 306 84 8 Domestic dog 179 99 1 1 — 16 8 6 65 9 Dog- or bobcat-sized mammal — 57 Cow-sized mammal — — 28 18 28 4 Sheep/goat-sized mammal — — 51 36 51 7 Pig — — 3 2 3 <1 Sheep/goat — — 1 1 1 <1 Mammal, size indeterminate — — 13 9 13 2 180 366 149 697 — — 28 28 Total Eggshell Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 306 Chapter 15 • Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 Table 43. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Refuse Deposits 3340 and 752 (part of Feature 3364), Block 254, Lots 4 and 5 Lot 4 Common Name Lot 5 Refuse Deposit 3340 MNIa NISPa Pacific giant oyster — Pismo clam Refuse Deposit 752 (part of 3364) MNI NISP Wt. (g) Wt. (%) — 1 1 27.6 92.9 — — 1 1 2.1 7.1 Variable coquina 1 1 0.2 1.1 — — Four-tooth nerite 1 1 0.7 3.9 — — Gray Atlantic auger 1 1 1.6 8.9 — — Lewis’ moon shell 1 1 15.4 86.0 — — Unidentifiable — — — — Total 4 4 17.9 2 2 0.23 0.23 1.03 Total density (per cubic foot) Wt. (g) Wt. (%) 29.7 Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. Table 44. Faunal Remains from Block 254, Lot 5 Common Name Feature 746 NISP % Feature 750 Feature 2045 NISP % NISP % Feature 3364 NISP % Total NISP % Rockfish — 1 <1 — — 1 <1 Bullhead catfish — 1 <1 — — 1 <1 Bony fish — 1 <1 1 — 2 <1 Amphibian — — — 6 <1 — — — 1 <1 — 1 <1 Dabbling ducks and teals 1 1 2 6 <1 Wild/domestic turkey — 1 <1 — Domestic chicken — 9 1 — 24 2 33 1 Chicken-sized bird — 17 3 — 12 1 29 1 3 <1 Small-sized bird 3 2 — — Bird, size indeterminate — 1 Rodent — — 2 Pocket gopher — — — Cotton rat — — 3 — — 1 <1 — — Mouse-sized mammal 1 Squirrel-sized mammal — — 26 Rabbit or hare — — — 1 <1 2 <1 1 <1 3 <1 2 <1 2 <1 — 3 <1 — 1 <1 — 26 1 6 <1 4 <1 4 6 53 6 <1 Rabbit-sized mammal 4 2 — — Dog- or bobcat-sized mammal 3 2 — — 2 <1 5 <1 — — 1 <1 1 <1 Carnivore — — 307 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Common Name Feature 746 NISP % Feature 750 NISP % Feature 2045 NISP % Feature 3364 NISP % Total NISP % continued on next page Coyotes, dogs, foxes, and wolves — — — 1 <1 1 <1 Domestic dog — — — 57 4 57 2 Pig 6 Cow — 4 6 1 — 44 3 56 2 37 6 — 65 5 102 4 3 <1 5 <1 2 <1 Sheep/goat 1 1 1 <1 — Sheep 1 1 1 <1 — 106 63 247 38 6 12 1,089 75 2,426 62 Sheep/goat-sized mammal 35 22 57 9 2 4 84 6 206 7 Mammal, large — — — 1 <1 1 <1 Mammal, medium-sized — — — 2 <1 2 <1 Mammal, very small — — — 1 <1 1 <1 47 3 340 15 2 <1 Cow-sized mammal Mammal, size indeterminate Unidentifiable Total Eggshell 8 276 41 9 — 2 <1 — — 169 658 49 1,449 2 17 1 — Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 308 5 — 18 3,331 20 C hapter  1 6 Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 34 E. Alameda Street (Lot 6) Lot 6 of Block 254 was purchased in March of 1890 by Ada E. Johnson, who apparently was involved in the real-estate business and later financed a mortgage for Charles C. Rasmussen. Johnson sold the property a year later to Benjamin Fairbanks (see Biographies), who quickly passed the title to Lizzie Blinkcorn. In 1892, Blinkcorn took out a mortgage on the property, which may have been used to finance the construction of the dwelling that was built on the lot between 1890 and 1894 (see Figures 10 and 12). Two years after purchasing the property, she sold it back to Benjamin Fairbanks. Unfortunately, the exact date when the dwelling was erected is unclear. There is some evidence to suggest that the household cesspit (Feature 3042) was constructed by Benjamin Fairbanks (see below). This may indicate he also built the associated residential structure, but the evidence remains equivocal. Benjamin operated the 1,200-square-foot property at 34 E. Alameda Street as a rental house starting in 1894, and his wife Edna continued to do so after his death in 1901 (see Biographies). In 1911, Edna sold to Rembler Paul, who most likely also rented out the property. Like Edna and Benjamin Fairbanks before him, Paul owned and lived on the adjoining property, at 48 E. Alameda Street. After Rembler Paul, the ownership record is not clear; the information for Lots 6 and 7 may have been switched for a time. In 1914, the title for Lot 7 was recorded as passing to Margaret Mahoney, who owned it until 1920. However, Margaret and her husband Daniel (see Biographies) were living on Lot 6 for at least the years between 1917 and 1920, and they may have been there as early as 1914. Lot 6 had supposedly been sold to Alice Hoff in 1915, and she was listed as the owner until 1920. In 1920, the titles for the two parcels were swapped. Alice Hoff gave Margaret Mahoney a quitclaim deed for Lot 6 in return for a quitclaim deed on Lot 7. Given this, and the Mahoney’s residential history on Lot 6, it seems likely that the original paperwork for the two lots was in error. After the title swap, Margaret Mahoney sold Lot 6 to Elizabeth Wills, the wife of a prominent Pinal County rancher and politician (see Biographies). She and her husband Thomas lived at 34 E. Alameda Street from 1921 until around 1937, when the home was razed. They did not, however, own the property for that entire time. In 1929, Elizabeth Wills sold Lot 6 to Gouley Burcham, a local merchandise broker, whose office was located on Lot 2 of Block 252, at the north end of the project area. The residential period of Lot 6 was represented by several archaeological features (see Figure 27). The house foundation and the household cesspit both remained largely intact (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building T and Cesspit 3042). A structure over the cesspit can be seen in Figure 12, a small building with an escapement chimney behind 34 E. Alameda Street. In 1901, it was depicted on the Sanborn map as a small square building in the northeast corner of the lot. Three sections of sewer trench were also recorded on the property (Trenches 183, 217, and 31261), probably leading to a bathroom at the northeast corner of 34 E. Alameda Street. A line of four trees, partially visible in Figure 13, were represented by tree pits in the middle of the backyard (Landscaping Pits 76, 79, 81, and 821), and one was identified in the front yard (Landscaping Pit 80). What appears to have been a posthole (Posthole 294) was identified on the eastern side of the property, near the property line, although the specific function of the feature is unclear. There were also several pits of various shapes and sizes (Features 536, 612, 621, 622, 794, 795, 796, 798, 815, 822, and 827; Pits 231 and 26791), three of which (Features 797, 820, and 833) were located beneath the footprint of the residence (Building T). Because the area was paved during the commercial period, it is likely that most of these pits dated from the residential period; however, those beneath the foundation predated the residence. Specific functions of the various pits remain unknown. 309 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest The feature that may tie the construction of Cesspit 3042 to Benjamin Fairbanks, rather than Lizzie Blinkcorn, was a subterranean tunnel (Feature 27071) that connected Cesspits 3040 and 3042. The former was associated with 48 E. Alameda Street, home of Benjamin Fairbanks, and was located adjacent to the latter, just across the property line between Lots 6 and 7. This tunnel was at the bottom of Cesspit 3040 and allowed it to empty into Cesspit 3042, a much deeper feature. It is likely that this system of linked cesspits was constructed by a single landowner. In addition to the other features associated with the lot’s residential period, two possible sections of adobe melt were identified. Initially thought to represent the wall enclosing the military section of the cemetery, they were given the single feature designation Building BB. Based on later analysis, it is unlikely that they represented cemetery components. It is possible that was designated Building BB were the remnants of one or more residential retaining walls or landscaping features; however, their associations and functions remain unclear. Residential History: 48 E. Alameda Street (Lot 7) Lot 7 was sold to John Hart in March of 1890, but 3 months later he sold it to Benjamin Fairbanks. It was Fairbanks who built the house at 48 E. Alameda Street and equipped it with indoor plumbing, sometime around 1891. Both Fairbanks’s residence and his buggy house can be clearly seen in the first known photograph of the project area during the residential period, dated 1890–1892 (see Figure 10). Although he originally built the dwelling as a single-story structure, by the late 1890s Fairbanks had added a second story (see Figure 12). At the time this addition was added, the house was the largest dwelling in the project area, comprising around 2,700 square feet. The later houses of Marcus Smith (see Chapter 13) and Fred Steward (see Chapter 8) were larger. Benjamin lived with his wife Edna at this address until his death in 1901. His widow remarried, becoming Edna Morgan in 1902, and she continued to live at 48 E. Alameda Street until around 1905. It is not clear what happened to her second marriage, but there is circumstantial evidence for dissolution or divorce (see Biographies). In any case, by 1911, when she sold her first husband’s property, she had remarried again to become Edna White. During the intervening years, she operated 48 E. Alameda Street as a rental property. Among her tenants was Mose Kelley (see Biographies), a local bank employee whose purchase receipts (Appendix M) were found in Cesspit 3040; other tenants are listed in Appendix D. Edna sold Lot 7 to Rembler Paul, who lived on the property and then sold it in 1914. This sale resulted in the title confusion with Lot 6 that was noted above. It is likely that this lot was purchased by Alice Hoff in 1915, although Margaret Mahoney is the registered owner from 1914 until 1920, when the two women traded properties through mutual quitclaim. In any case, between 1920 and 1929, Lot 7 was controlled by Alice Hoff and her husband, former Tucson Mayor Gustav A. Hoff (see Biographies). From 1918 through 1929, the property was apparently a rental, and it housed at least nine separate tenant households. Most of these were in residence for only a year or so, including a Southern Pacific Railroad switchman, a cashier, a clerk, and a truck driver (see Appendix D). Two of the residents had a slightly longer tenure, and both were using the premises to run a business. The first of these was Mary MacGoon, who ran a boarding house at 48 E. Alameda Street for several years in the early 1920s. The second was Charles Sewell, who listed his home business, Sewell Brothers Painting, at this address between 1927 and 1928. Charles Sewell and his wife, Colleen would have had a 6- or 7-year-old son, Charles T. Sewell, during their tenure on the lot (ASBH BVS 1921b). Virginia-born Spencer M. Kennedy lived at this address in 1934; Spencer’s wife Mabel had given birth to a son, Spencer Jr., while they were staying in Jett’s Auto Camp in 1924 (ASBH BVS 1924b). Spencer Jr.’s birth certificate indicates that he was the couple’s sixth living child, indicating that children 10 years of age and older lived on the lot with their parents. Ownership of Lot 7 was transferred several times in 1929. The Hoffs sold the property to Fred Ficket and William Misbaugh, who promptly sold it to Celestino Sanchez a month later. Celestino held the title for less than 4 months before Gouley Burcham (see Chapter 7) purchased the property on the same day he purchased adjoining Lot 6. After Gouley Burcham purchased Lot 7, the residence was unoccupied most of the time. Only two tenants are listed in the city directories from 1930 until the building was razed around 1937. Both stayed less than a year (see Appendix D). 310 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 The residential occupation of Lot 7 was represented by several archaeological features (Figure 85 and see Figure 27). The nearly complete foundations of the house at 48 E. Alameda Street were uncovered (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building U). Elements of the early city sewer system were extant as well, including a connection to Cesspit 3040, which on the 1901 Sanborn map was located under a small structure labeled “Buggy House” in the northwestern corner of the lot. In addition, Trench 108 connected Cesspit 3040 and Building U and contained a sewer pipe (Feature 289), and Tunnel 27071 connected Cesspits 3040 and 3042. There were also two refuse pits on the lot (see Figure 85), one of which represented the remains of a small shed or wood bin along the back of the house (Refuse Pit 531). The other was located in the front yard and was thus likely a tree pit that contained incidental artifacts (Refuse Pit 518). The front yard also contained a row of five tree pits, running along East Alameda Street (Landscaping Features 520, 521, 522, 523, and 830). Finally, there were three other pits located on Lot 7 for which no function was determined (Pits 109, 831, and 832). Of these, Pits 831 and 832 were located beneath the footprint of Building U. Commercial History: 38 E. Alameda Street (Lots 6 and 7) By 1937, the residential buildings on Lots 6 and 7 had been razed. Both lots were vacant for 9 years, used only occasionally for parking (see Figure 15). In 1947, the Hackett Whiting Motor Company, a Pontiac sales and service dealership, built a new structure that occupied the northern edge of Lot 6 and the northern and eastern edges of Lot 7 (see Commercial Enterprises). Figure 16 shows this building just after it was finished. The Hackett Whiting Motor Company occupied this building, located at 38 E. Alameda Street in city directories but at 46 E. Alameda Street on Sanborn maps, until around 1955, when it moved to a new location outside the project area. The automobile dealership was followed by the Phoenix Title and Trust Company, which occupied the premises until 1962. After sitting vacant for several years, the building became home to the engineering division of the Pima County Public Works Department in 1964. However, the building was again vacant between 1968 and 1970. The building was occupied during the 1970s by the U.S. Thrift and Loan Association and during the 1980s by Catalina Savings and then by Southwestern Savings. Southwestern Savings continued to operate on the premises into at least the 1990s. Finally, the building was razed in 2003 (O’Mack 2005), and once again the lot was vacant. The commercial occupation of Lots 6 and 7 left behind few archaeological remains (see Figures 27 and 85), aside from remnants of the building itself (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building B). Indeed, only three concrete slabs (Features 96, 530, and 3378), a posthole (Feature 605), and two water pipes (Features 97 and 99) appeared to have dated from this period. Pit 623, a large shallow feature located between foundations associated with the west end of the auto dealership, probably represented an area of excavation associated with the construction of a hydraulic hoist, an oil-changing pit, or some other subterranean feature. Pit 620 was probably related to the foundations of the building. Biographies Fairbanks Benjamin David Fairbanks was a property owner and resident of the project area between 1892 and 1901. He was born in Michigan in 1837 and came to Tucson in 1869, doing contract work in freighting until the arrival of the railroad. Later, he made his fortune as a gambler and saloon keeper, running tables at Congress Hall (ADS, 9 April 1901:1). Eventually he established The Fashion Restaurant, which he operated until his death. Advertisements for the establishment were posted in local newspapers on several occasions (ADS, 5 August 1885:4; ADC, 25 February 1890:4), “praising” it for its first-class fare and ice cream desserts (AWC, 23 June 1884:4). During the 1870s, Fairbanks also owned and operated a hay and feed yard (Village of Tucson 1871–1877). 311 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest In 1889, at the age of 52, he married 15-year-old Edna Grace Tarbox, who had come to Tucson along with her mother and sister. One year later, he bought the property at 48 E. Alameda Street (Block 254, Lot 7) in the project area. There he built a house, where he lived with Edna and her family. None of the women appears to have had an occupation. By the end of 1894, Fairbanks owned not only his home lot but the three other lots sharing the quarter block. It may have been around this time that he built the structure at 34 E. Alameda Street, next door to his house, and operated it as a rental property. In 1897, he acquired the deed to Lot 1 of Block 252, but he sold it 2 years later. Additionally, Pima County tax records from the late 1890s and early 1900s (Pima County 1898, 1900, 1901) indicate that Fairbanks owned several other properties around Tucson, including Block 253 in the project area; Lot 13 of Block 255, adjacent to the project area; and Lot 6 of Tucson’s Sunnyside Addition. Benjamin died in 1901, at the age of 64, following a buggy accident involving a poorly maintained streetcar track (ADS, 9 April 1901:1). The wheel caught against the track, spilling Benjamin and Edna onto the street. Although Edna suffered only minor injuries, Benjamin received a major head trauma and died later that night. Edna continued to live in their home until at least 1903, when she inherited all of her husband’s holdings. She remarried in 1902 to Albert Morgan (Negley and Lindley 1994), another bartender, the same year she sold Block 253 to Mose Drachman. She moved out of the project area and apparently out of Tucson by 1906; however, Albert relocated to another part of Tucson, suggesting they had separated. There are two listings for Edna and Albert in Arizona Territorial Marriages, Pima County, 1871–1912 (Negley and Lindley 1994). As it is unlikely they were married twice, the second entry may indicate the date of their divorce. If this is so, they were divorced in December of 1905, shortly after the couple had sold Lots 4 and 5 of Block 254 to David Cochran. Edna was married again by 1911, when she was listed as Edna White during the sale of Lots 6 and 7 to Rembler Paul. Little else is known of her life after she left Tucson. Kelley Mose E. Kelley (Figure 86) was born in Texas in 1878 but moved to Tucson as a baby. His mother, Josepha Ballesteras, was born in Mexico, and his father was born in Illinois (ASBH BVS 1914f). As a youth, he was hired as a call boy for the Southern Pacific Railroad, working his way up to clerk and then timekeeper as a young man. He married 27-year-old Neva Stone in 1909, when he was 30. Neva Stone Kelley was born in Pinal County in 1882. She attended school in Prescott, Florence, and Tempe Normal College (ADS, 10 March 1954) and moved to Tucson in 1904 (Negley and Lindley 1994). Mose and Neva had a son in 1910, Moses Eggleston Kelley (ATBH BVS 1910b), when they were living near the project area at 32 E. Alameda Street. A year later, he took a job with Merchant Bank and Trust, where he worked as a teller (ADS, 14 June 1914:8). In early 1914, he was hired as a cashier with the Consolidated National Bank, and shortly thereafter he died suddenly from an apparent seizure. He was buried in the Masonic cemetery. Neva gave birth to a second son, George Benton Kelley, later that year (ASBH BVS 1914g). In 1927, 13 years after her husband’s death, she joined the Pima County Assessor’s Office, eventually rising to the position of Pima County Assessor by the time she died in 1954 (ADS, 10 March 1954). A mass of grocery receipts dating from May and June of 1911 was recovered from Cesspit 3040, in a large deposit of refuse near the top of the feature. On each of the receipts was a handwritten reference to customer “Mose Kelley” or “Mrs. Mose Kelley,” indicating that a married woman, and by association her husband, were probably onetime residents at 48 E. Alameda Street. No archival records could be found to confirm the couple’s residence at that address; however, the gap in available Tucson city directories between 1910 and 1912 precludes a positive determination. Discarded newspapers found interleaved with the receipts indicate a period between April and early October of 1911, which may neatly represent the time period during which the Kelleys occupied the house. Mahoney Margaret and Daniel Mahoney were both residents and property owners in the project area. In 1910, they were renting the house at 48 E. Alameda Street, on Lot 7 of Block 254. In 1914, they bought Lot 6 from Rembler Paul and moved into the house at 34 E. Alameda Street. They continued to live on Lot 6 until they sold it to Elizabeth Wills in 1920. Margaret was born in Canada, Daniel in Boston of Irish parents (ASBH BVS 1929d; ASDH DVS 1944). Little is known about the couple, except that Daniel was a member of the 312 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Knights of Pythias (AHS n.d.w; Knights of Pythias 1895) and proprietor of the Olympic Club, which was probably a men’s club or a drinking establishment. He also worked as a railway conductor for the Southern Pacific Railroad. He was with the company for 34 years before his sudden death from heart failure in 1929, at the end of his work shift at Wilson House in Yuma (TC, 10 December 1929). Margaret outlived her husband by 15 years. She was a resident of Tucson for 45 years before her death in 1944 at the age of 83 (TC, 3 February 1944). Hoff Alice Hoff owned Lot 7 of Block 254 between 1915, when she bought it from Rembler Paul, and 1920, when she sold it to Elizabeth Wills. Alice was born in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1856, where she attended private schools until she moved to Los Angeles in 1875 (AHS n.d. r). There she met her future husband Gustav Hoff, whom she married in 1880. Gustav was born in Germany in 1852 (Chapman Publishing Company 1901), but he had come to the United States at the age of 3 and was a naturalized citizen by the age of 6 years. His family originally settled in Yorktown, Texas, where there was a large community of German immigrants (AHS n.d. r). Gustav spent some time working in the freight business in Utah with his father and then by himself in San Bernardino, California (Chapman Publishing Company 1901), but by the 1870s he was working for the Haas-Baruch grocery company in Los Angeles, where he met Alice. In 1879, Gustav started working as a teamster, hauling goods between Los Angeles and Tucson. The couple settled permanently in Tucson in 1881 (AHS n.d. r), where Gustav spent the next several years working for various grocery companies (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). In 1892, Gustav opened the Tucson Grocery Company in partnership with A. V. Grossetta and L. G. Radulovich. Later, he was involved in the opening of the Tucson Hardware Company. Alice and Gustav were both Christian Scientists, and Alice was the first practitioner of that religion in Tucson (AHS n.d. a). They were instrumental in developing the early Tucson Christian Science community, and their home served as the first meeting place for the church. Much of their life seems to have been influenced by their religious affiliation. The couple attributed Alice’s recovery from depression to their faith, and in 1915, Gustav’s moral sensibilities led him to become a vegetarian. The couple had five children, and one of their daughters, Mary Winstanley, served as the librarian for the Christian Science Reading Room that was located at 200 N. Stone Avenue, next to the project area, between 1948 and 1953 (AHS n.d. r). The couple also championed the cause of women’s suffrage in Arizona. Alice’s mother had been a companion to the wife of George Train, an eccentric character and prolific writer, who contributed much to the literature of the late-nineteenth-century women’s movement, including the Championship of Women in 1868. Gustav was a member of the Territorial Legislature (Wagoner 1970), and in 1891, introduced the Women’s Suffrage Bill, which passed in the House but not in the Senate. The episode earned him the nickname “Petticoat Hoff” (AHS n.d. r). This apparently did not hurt Gustav’s political career, however, as he went on to serve as mayor of Tucson between 1900 and 1904. It was under his administration that the city acquired the Tucson Water Company (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). After his stint as mayor, Gustav went into business with his brother Charles and bought ranch land north of Tucson. In addition, he managed the L. H. Manning Company (a railroad contractor that employed several Tucson mayors) between 1905 and his death in 1930. He also served as secretary for the Citizen’s Building and Loan Association and was a member of the Board of Trade (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). In the early 1920s, just after his wife had sold her holdings in the project area, Gustav became involved in mineral and oil mining, and he was briefly president of Tu-Tex Oil. The company was seeking oil in Mexico, but the venture was short-lived because of unrest caused by the Mexican Revolution. Gustav was a member of several social organizations, including the Arizona Pioneers Historical Society, the Knights of Pythias, the Elks, and the Masons (Chapman Publishing Company 1901). He died in 1930 at the age of 78. Alice outlived her husband by 33 years; she died at the age of 106 in 1963. Her unique personality apparently remained undiminished by extreme age, and she made the papers in 1958 when, at the age of 101, she signed a 99-year lease on land she owned at Church Avenue and Alameda Street. 313 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Wills Thomas N. and Elizabeth C. Wills were owners and residents on the project area between 1920 and 1937. Elizabeth purchased Lot 6 of Block 254 from Margaret Mahoney in 1920, and the couple moved into the house at 34 E. Alameda Street the following year. Elizabeth’s husband, Thomas, issued a quitclaim for the property to her in January of 1922, possibly in an attempt to separate this property financially from his cattle business. In 1929, the property was sold to Gouley Burcham on mortgage. This mortgage was paid off in 1931, although the Wills continued to live at the house until 1937. Thomas Wills was born in California in 1866 and came to Arizona in 1883, at the age of 17. As a young man he was an amateur rodeo competitor and worked as a Wild West performer. In 1898, he performed as a member of Buffalo Bill’s Troupe (ADS, 24 January 1940) at the Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition in Omaha (Nebraska State Historical Society 2004). In Arizona, he was primarily known as a cattleman. In 1896, he married Elizabeth C. Chamberlain, the daughter of a San Pedro rancher. During his career, he owned several Arizona ranches, including the Interocean in Reddington country and Old Tom Brown along the San Pedro (ADS, 24 January 1940). A bill of sale for cattle and livestock indicated that he had a partner at one time named William Kellogg (AHS n.d. h). Wills was also active in the state political arena and spent 18 years between 1900 and 1928 working in the Pinal County government. This included 10 years on the Board of Supervisors, 4 years as sheriff, and another 4 years as senator. As a state senator, he lobbied the U.S. Congress to grant Arizona possession of 5 million acres of federal land for the construction of highways and educational institutions (Arizona Blade Tribune, 1927). Wills was a Democrat and served as a member of the Arizona Constitutional Convention (ADS, 24 January 1940). Despite his financial and political commitments in Pinal County, Thomas and his wife resided in Tucson beginning in 1920, when they bought the property in the project area. They later moved to an address on Stone Avenue, north of the project area. Socially, Thomas was an Elk, a 32nd degree Mason, and a Shriner (ADS, 24 January 1940). He was reportedly “one of the most widely known stockmen in southern Arizona” (Florence Blade Tribune, 31 March 1928; TC, 12 March 1926). He died in 1940 in Tucson, of a heart attack, at the age of 74 (ADS, 24 January 1940). Elizabeth survived him, but research did not reveal information about her after this time. Burcham For a biography of Gouley Burcham, see Chapter 7. Commercial Enterprises Hackett Whiting Motor Company On the 1947 Sanborn map, a new building was depicted on Lots 6 and 7 of Block 254, which had been empty since the houses on those lots were razed in 1938. The Hackett Whiting Motor Company, founded by Durlin B. Hackett and B. F. Whiting, occupied the building at 38 E. Alameda Street for the next 10 years. The Pontiac sales and service dealership moved to the project area from its former location at 130 E. Pennington Avenue. In 1950, the company business expanded, starting up a body shop and used-car lot at 2429 S. 6th Street. By 1955, the company name had changed to the Hackett Motor Company. They closed their project area location around 1956, and the business was not listed in Tucson city directories after 1957. The building was razed in 2003 although portions of the foundation were still present at the beginning of excavations for this project. 314 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Architectural Descriptions 34 E. Alameda Street, Lot 6 Residential Structure (Building T) This one-story, single-family dwelling, constructed between 1896 and 1901, was Folk Victorian in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 5 and 7]; see Figures 12–15) (Sanborn 1901–1930). The rectangular-in-plan residence was oriented south-north, with the main entrance on the south facade facing E. Alameda Street. Constructed of adobe, the building had a moderately pitched, wood-framed hipped roof with cross-gabled dormers on the front and rear facade. Like others in the neighborhood at this time, it may have begun as a flat-roofed building. A stovepipe extended beyond the wood-shingled roof. One room block was located on the east end of the north facade. On both the front and rear facades were wood-framed porches clad with wood shingles. Between 1915 and 1919, the separation was removed between the room block and the porch, and the rear porch was enclosed and partially expanded. The remodeled section was reroofed with a composite material. The building was demolished by 1938. 48 E. Alameda Street, Lot 7 Residential Structure (Building U) This one-story, single-family dwelling, constructed between 1890 and 1892, originated as a Spanish Colonial– style vernacular building (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 5, 7 and 17]; see Figures 10 and Figures 12– 15) (Sanborn 1901–1930). Located at the northwest corner of E. Alameda Street and Grossetta Avenue, the rectangular-in-plan residence was oriented south-north. The main entrance was on the south facade facing East Alameda Street. Constructed of adobe, the building had a flat roof with at least two interior chimneys. Between 1892 and 1901, the residence was completely remodeled. A wood-framed structure was constructed around the adobe dwelling, creating an adobe-lined building. Another wood-framed half story was added with a moderately pitched, wood-framed cross-gabled roof. The roof was clad with wood shingles and had narrow eaves, and roof gable ends had attic vents. A one-story veranda clad with a wood-shingled roof was built on the exterior of the entire building. Between 1915 and 1919, the rear porch was enclosed and partially expanded. The building was reroofed with a composite material and a stovepipe extended beyond the roofline. The house was demolished by 1937. 481/2 E. Alameda Street, Buggy House (No Building Number) This small adobe building, constructed between 1890 and 1892, had a low-pitched, wood-framed shed roof clad with wood shingles (see Figures 10, 14, and 15) (Sanborn 1901–1930). Entry was provided through an opening on the south side. At least between 1901 and 1904, the building served as a buggy house. The structure was gone by 1939. 38/46 E. Alameda Street, Hackett Whiting Motor Company (Building B) This one-story, L-shaped commercial building, built between 1945 and 1947, was constructed of both brick- and wood-framed walls (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 63, and 65]; see Figures 16–18) (Sanborn 1947–1960). It had a concrete floor, and the roof heights were mostly 12 feet, with one portion recorded as 15 feet. Its wood-framed flat roof was clad in a composite material and had a 2-foot-high parapet. Its brick walls were 8 inches thick. The building served as an automobile sales and service business. One leg of the L-shape ran south-north and the other ran west-east, with the bulk of the building in the northeast corner. The main entrance was on East Alameda Street, and service bays faced south and west. Windows ran along the east facade, but the north facade had no fenestration. Between 1956 and 1957, the building became a private garage, and office space was located in the southern end. It was razed in 2003 (O’Mack 2005). 315 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building B (38/46 E. Alameda Street, Hackett Whiting Motor Company) Building B (see Figures 27 and 85) originally had two main wings, one running east-west along the northern property line of Lots 6 and 7, and one running north-south along the eastern property line of Lot 7. These wings would have met at the northeast corner of Lot 7, the whole structure measuring approximately 125 by 125 feet in plan view. This floor plan is corroborated by Sanborn maps starting in 1947. The eastern wing of the building was represented by a section of foundation along the southern edge of Lot 7 (Feature 525). Most of this section made up the southern wall of this wing, which was approximately 41 feet long, although it also included segments of both the east and west walls. The northern wing of the building was represented by three sections of foundation (Features 625, 636, and 3085). Foundation 625 was a corner fragment of the western and northern walls, and Foundation 636 represented an internal division of this wing and was approximately 29 feet in length, north to south. Foundation 3085 was a longer section of the northern wall. These foundation segments were all approximately 2 feet in width, with 2-foot-wide trapezoidal crenellations every 10.5 feet. Three other features were associated with this building. A north-south trench approximately 67 feet long and between 2.5 and 5.5 feet wide (Feature 110) was created during the removal of the building’s foundation in 2003, prior to the commencement of this project. A refuse pit (Feature 623) was located between Foundations 625 and 636, an area that may have been a repair bay. It is possible that Refuse Pit 623 represented an area of excavation associated with the construction of a hydraulic hoist, an oil-changing pit, or some other subterranean feature. The partial remains of a concrete slab (Feature 979) were located south of Foundation 3085. This slab, oriented north-south, was 18.5 feet long by 10 feet wide. Parts of the western and southern edges were missing. The component features of Building B intruded on or superimposed several unrelated features. Foundation 525 disturbed two tree pits along Alameda Street (Landscaping Features 523 and 522), and overlaid a water line (Feature 99). Trench 110 completely destroyed parts of the foundation of Building U. It also intruded on the upper fill of a storage shed behind Building U (Feature 531), a small pit (Feature 831), and two grave pits (Grave Pits 111 and 1479). Foundation 3085 superimposed two graves (Grave Pits 3329 and 3355), as well as a refuse deposit (Feature 3340). Foundation 625 was also built over several graves (Grave Pits 624, 631, 632, and 10188) and intruded on the upper fill of two utility-related pits (Features 10376 and 10446). The presence of foundations that predated Building B suggested that significant portions of the southern end of the project area were built up or filled in, thus mitigating much of the subsurface impact of subsequent construction. The footprint of the building superimposed several features without disturbing them. These included three graves (Grave Pits 3069, 3070, and 3083), much of the west half of Building U, and a sewer line (Trench 108) that ran between Building U and Cesspit 3040. In addition, there were concrete slabs (Features 96, 530, and 3378), landscaping features (Features 520 and 521), a refuse pit (Feature 518), a second trench (Feature 97), and five pits of unknown function (Features 109, 621, 620, 622, and 832). Building T (34 E. Alameda Street, Lot 6 Residential Structure) The remains of Building T (see Figure 27) were exposed during mechanical stripping, and its walls were defined by hand-excavation. The building was rectangular in shape and measured roughly 40 by 30 feet on an east-west axis. Once the horizontal extent of the building had been determined, several backhoe trenches were excavated, both interior and exterior to the building, in order to gain information on the vertical structure of the walls. The fill from these trenches was put through the power screen; few artifacts were recovered. The outer walls of the building (Feature 116) were wet-laid and semicoursed, using a double row of basalt blocks and cobbles that were consistent with locally quarried materials. There was little shaping of the basalt, although the exterior surface was probably at least partially dressed. The mortar was concave to flush, with smaller stones and possible spall being used as chinking between the larger blocks. Adobe bricks in the corners appeared to be interlaced. Only a single course of the foundation was still intact, and it sat on the caliche at the interface between Natural Strata I and II. The outer walls were about 2 feet thick. The 316 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 inner walls of the foundation had the same structure as the outer, except that they contained only a single row of unshaped basalt blocks and cobbles, as opposed to a double row, and were therefore only around 1.5 feet thick. The inner walls abutted the outer walls. There was no evidence of any remodeling episodes or of any utility connections. The western third of the building was occupied by two rooms, and the eastern area was a partially divided main room. The main room had two wall stubs that served as area dividers, each approximately 8 feet long. The first stub was along the northern wall and divided the room into a 10-foot section on the west and a 12-foot section on the east. The second stub was along the southern wall and divided the room into a 7-foot section on the west and a 15-foot section on the east. This created four interconnected areas of slightly different dimensions. Overall, the eastern area was approximately 26 feet north-south by 24 feet east-west. The two rooms in the western third of Building T were considerably smaller than the eastern space. The square room in the northwestern corner of the feature measured approximately 12 by 12 feet, and the southwestern room was approximately 15.5 feet north-south by 12 feet east-west. The western interior wall also contained a post mold (Posthole 146) in its north-central section. It is likely that several trenches (Features 183, 217, and 31261) were once connected to a water closet attached to the northeast corner of the building. Trenches 217 and 31261 would have connected the water closet to the city sewer, and prior to the introduction of the sewer system, Trench 183 would have transported the waste from the water closet to Cesspit 3042. The footprint of Building T superimposed a number of graves (Grave Pits 304, 609, 610, 613, 790, 791, 792, 793, 799, 818, 823, and 824). Of these, only four (Grave Pits 613, 790, 791, and 793) had disturbances noted. For those four, this intrusion tended to be severe, with the foundation sinking farther into the grave shaft than it did into the surrounding matrix. Building T also overlaid Pits 797, 820, and 833, although the foundation did not intrude upon these features. Building U (48 E. Alameda Street, Lot 7 Residential Structure) Building U (see Figure 85) was first identified during the mechanical stripping of the project area. The foundations sat on compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II, and the feature fill was silty to sandy loam. The walls were partially exposed by hand to more clearly define their extent, and three test units were excavated within the confines of the feature. Two of these units were placed interior to wall junctions, to allow structural analysis, and the third was placed between the inner and the outer walls on the east side of the building in order to sample the house fill. Artifact concentrations in all units were low but included construction debris. Building U had two main components, a central building and an outer wall, both oriented on an east-west axis. Although both were constructed of adobe bricks, there were several construction episodes in which other material types were used. The southeast corner of the central building, for example, was reinforced by the placement of a small poured-concrete wall (Feature 276) sometime after its initial construction. This wall was approximately 9 inches thick with two legs, each around 6 feet long, that lined the east and west walls of the building. The central building itself measured approximately 42 feet long and 32 feet wide, with 18-inch-thick walls (Features 259, 281, 4001, and 4003). There were two interior walls in the building, one running northsouth (Feature 280) and one running east-west (Feature 279), creating four rooms. The western rooms were each approximately 23 feet long by 14 feet wide, and the eastern rooms were approximately 14 feet square. A sewer trench (Feature 108) ran from the southeastern corner of the northeastern room to the cesspit in the northwest corner of Lot 7 (Feature 3040). A 10-inch-diameter post mold (Feature 282) was embedded at the midpoint in the western wall of the southeastern room. Within the northwestern room, a vertical concrete slab, approximately 4 feet long, ran along the northern wall, with its midpoint about 4 feet from the northwest corner. This slab (Feature 4002) was located between two ash pits (Features 947 and 6088). An ash pit usually lies below a fireplace and is accessed in two ways. First, ash is dumped into the pit through an ash dump, a center-pivoting trapdoor located in the fireplace, below the fire grate. When a sufficient amount of ash has accumulated, the ash pit is emptied through the clean-out door, which is usually located outside or in the basement (Haas 1979). Thus it is probable that these three features represented parts of a fireplace or other heating source within the northwestern room. One of the ash pits (Feature 947) was a rectangular, brick-lined pit with a metal pan insert. The feature measured approximately 3 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 1 foot deep. It was filled with dense ash and charred materials, 317 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest and its southern end abutted the northern wall of the main building. The second ash pit (Feature 6088) was a mushroom-shaped, brick-and-mortar-lined feature, approximately 1.5 feet in diameter, with a 1-by-2-footwide rectangular opening on the northern side. The fill was dense ash that contained charred materials and very little nonorganic matter. The extant feature was about 1.5 feet in depth. The arrangement of features suggested that Ash Pit 6088 was constructed first and that it was later replaced by Ash Pit 947. The original access through the foundation may then have been closed using the vertical concrete slab (Feature 4002). Two rows of postholes lined the exterior of both the northern and western walls of the central building. Along the northern wall (Feature 4001) were six posts (Features 27203, 27204, 27205, 27206, 27213, and 27214), spaced between 3 and 4.5 feet apart along the entire length of the wall. The posts were rectangular, measuring approximately 12 inches long by 8 inches wide. The western wall (Feature 4003) was also lined by a row of six posts (Features 27207, 27208, 27209, 27210, 27211, and 27212), although only along its northern half. These posts ranged in size from 4 by 4 inches to 12 by 7 inches in plan view. Five of the posts were spaced approximately 2 feet apart, suggesting that a seventh post once existed between the two southernmost posts, which were approximately 4 feet apart. It is likely that these posts were used to support a porch that wrapped around the building. The outer wall that surrounded the central building was a complex construction, which used at least three different material types and probably represented at least as many building episodes (Features 241, 242, 243, 254, 256, 257, and 258). The structure was rectangular in plan view, measuring approximately 54 feet east-west and 44 feet north-south along its perimeter. Initially constructed of adobe bricks, the wall would originally have been around 2 feet thick. Remnants of this first wall were encountered on all four sides of the structure (Features 241, 242, 257, and 258). At some later date, the adobe was replaced on the eastern side (Feature 243) and the eastern two-thirds of the southern side (Feature 254) by 7-inch-thick poured concrete. The concrete was poured on top of a single row of adobe bricks, the only remaining evidence of the original wall. The western third of the southern outer wall (Feature 256) was constructed of basalt block and mortar approximately 1.5 feet thick, and the southeastern corner of the outer wall (Feature 244) was composed of andesite block and mortar. Andesite flakes were found in the fill near this corner, suggesting that the blocks were shaped on location. The column formed by the blocks and mortar was oriented roughly eastwest, measured 10 by 20 inches, and ran slightly diagonal between the southern and eastern walls. Like the walls, the column sat on an adobe foundation, probably the remains of the original adobe wall. Northwest of the column was an irregular concrete slab (Feature 245), measuring approximately 32 inches east-west by 24 inches north-south. The purpose of the slab is unclear, but it may have been the foundation of a pillar or another support structure. Four more slabs like this one (Features 917, 918, 919, and 949) were found under the outer northern wall. This wall consisted of two parallel components (Features 241 and 258), both composed of adobe bricks, ranging between 12 and 18 inches thick. Both components of the wall superimposed one or more of the concrete slabs, which were evenly spaced along its central extent. The slabs were roughly circular in shape, with diameters ranging from 22 to 26 inches. Like the slab in the southeastern corner (Feature 244), their exact purpose was unclear, although it is likely they were used to support posts or pillars. One final concrete slab (Feature 3506) was discovered under the northernmost extent of the outer western wall (Feature 257). This slab was much smaller and more irregular than the other five, running roughly 25 inches north-south and 11 inches east-west. The footprint of Building U intruded on a number of features, including graves (Grave Pits 839, 840, 936, 5140, and 5141) and pits (Features 831 and 832). The disturbance to some of the graves (Grave Pits 839, 840, and 936) was minimal, only intruding into the upper fill, but the impact to others (Grave Pits 5140 and 5141) was much more extensive, with the adobe wall on the grave floor. The burials in some of the graves (Grave Pits 936, 5140, and 5141) had been previously removed. However, isolated human remains were found in the fill around Building U. The extent to which Building U affected Pits 831 and 832 is unknown. Trench 110 intruded into the remains of Building U; Trench 110 was excavated during the demolition of the automobile dealership that had been built on the former site of the residential structure at 38 E. Alameda Street. This trench ran north-south between the eastern and western sections of the southern outer wall, across the western side of the main house and northward across the two northern outer walls. 318 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Building BB (Unidentified Postcemetery Structure) The two sections of adobe melt identified as Building BB (see Figure 27) were discovered during mechanical stripping. The largest section (Foundation 27038) was discovered south of Lot 6, along East Alameda Street, and it may have represented a small retaining wall or a similar landscaping feature. It was oriented largely east-west but included a corner on the east end, as well as a 3-foot section of the eastern wall. This segment of wall was about 1 foot wide and had significant staining along one side, indicating root rot from adjacent vegetation. The second section (Foundation 968) was in alignment with the eastern wall, although it remains far from clear that they were necessarily associated. It was oriented north-south and was approximately 3 feet long with a width of about 1 foot. The remains of both of these sections were very ephemeral. Cesspit 3040 Feature 3040 (Figure 87) was a north-south-oriented cesspit located in the northwestern corner of Lot 7 and associated with the residential structure at 48 E. Alameda Street (Building U). The feature measured nearly 17 feet deep, starting at 7 by 6 feet in plan view at the top and tapering down to 6 by 4 feet at the bottom. This shape was most likely the result of the collapse around the top edges of the pit during its use life. The feature was excavated in four stages, with work stopping at the end of each stage so that the area around the feature could be stepped back mechanically to meet safety regulations concerning trench depth. Stage 1 was not divided into sections. The last three stages were bisected and excavated in accordance with methods established previously. In the first two stages of the excavation, the feature walls were surrounded by a compact caliche matrix consistent with Natural Stratum II, which underlies the whole of the site. Near the bottom of Stage 2, the external matrix changed to a thin layer of heavy gravels, which has been defined as Natural Stratum III. This was followed by more caliche, similar to that found above. In Stage 4, the caliche was replaced by Natural Stratum V, which consisted of highly structured, fine, orange-brown sand (see Volume 2, Chapter 3, for a detailed discussion of the natural stratigraphy of the site). During the construction of Cesspit 3040 in historical times, the workers intruded on Grave Pit 3041, which extended westward from the southern half of the cesspit’s western edge. Much of the upper body of the burial was found intact during this investigation. Some of the disarticulated remains from this burial had been reinterred at the bottom of Cesspit 3040, beneath a cap of clean fill, although a number of elements remained unaccounted for despite thorough excavation. Evidence from both the burial and the cesspit suggested that the workers excavated a significant distance sideways into the grave shaft in order to remove more of the remains than they had originally disturbed. These included ribs, a humerus, and a scapula. Cesspit 3040 was most likely constructed by or for Benjamin Fairbanks, who built the associated house at 48 E. Alameda Street in the early 1890s. He and his wife Edna were the first occupants of the property and owned the lot (see Biographies). Benjamin died in 1901, although Edna continued to live at that address for several years, possibly as late as 1905. This long-term occupation resulted in an accumulation of material in the lowest levels of the cesspit that could be reasonably associated with the Fairbanks household on the basis of temporally diagnostic artifacts (see below). This was also the uppermost, or latest, level in the feature to contain evidence that the cesspit was used for disposal of human waste. The next level up (Stratum XII) contained fewer artifacts and was primarily composed of clean fill. It may thus have represented a final capping of the cesspit. The capping level dated to around 1906 and probably spanned the period of transition between Edna Fairbanks and the following occupant. Sanitary sewer connections became available to households along East Alameda Street by the end of 1902, after the city government authorized the installation of a sewer main (ADS, 7 February 1902:8; TC, 7 February 1902:8). It is possible Edna Fairbanks had the city sewer connected to her home at that time, either for her own use or in preparation for renters who would later occupy the structure. Subsequent depositional episodes, on top of the capping episode and postdating the Fairbanks occupancy, most likely reflected the dumping of household refuse by later residents and not the disposal of human waste (Strata VIII, IX, X, and XII). Higher in the feature (Strata VI and VII), the nature of the fill changed dramatically. Rather than the discrete horizontal layers encountered lower in the feature, the upper fill consisted of large vertically contiguous refuse deposits interlaced with irregular deposits of clean fill. In these layers (Strata II–VII), the nature 319 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest of the artifacts also changed, from primarily household refuse to larger quantities of construction material, including adobe, block, and marble. It is thought that these layers represented the period around 1937, during which the house on the property was razed. Indeed, artifacts from the highest levels of the cesspit (Strata I–III) dated the fill between 1930 and 1940. After demolition of the residential structure, it is likely that the pit continued to serve as an informal dumping spot, especially as the refuse within it settled and formed a depression at the top of the feature. This period probably accounted for the morphology that characterized Stratum I, which dated into the early 1940s. The last possible deposition date for this feature was 1946, when the lot was paved and a new commercial building was constructed. Two trenches (Features 108 and 27071) related to this cesspit were encountered during excavation. Trench 108 was a sewer line that ran from 48 E. Alameda Street (Building U) to Cesspit 3040. This sewer line entered the southeast corner of the cesspit approximately 3 feet below the ground surface. During excavation of Stage 3, it became clear that, based on the color pattern of the green cesspit fill, waste had flowed out of the pipe and dropped nearly to the bottom of the feature, before flowing toward the opening provided by Tunnel 27071. No evidence for such a flow pattern was detected in higher strata. This lent support to the supposition that the feature ceased functioning as a cesspit early in its use life. Feature 27071, a tunnel measuring 2 feet wide, 2 feet high, and approximately 3 feet long, connected Cesspit 3040 to an adjacent cesspit (Feature 3042) to the east (Figure 88). The top of the tunnel was approximately 14 feet below the known top of Cesspit 3040. The tunnel contained green fill, as well as small to medium-sized artifacts that apparently had been carried along by the flow. A void measuring 8 by 16 inches was encountered in the fill of Cesspit 3040, along the wall directly above the tunnel, probably caused by a collapse. Cesspit 3042 Feature 3042 (see Figure 87) was a north-south-oriented cesspit. To comply with safety regulations, it was excavated by Statistical Research in five stages. Even so, the total vertical extent of Cesspit 3042 (approximately 31 feet) was in excess of what could safely be excavated by hand. As a result, a soil auger was employed at the end of Stage 4 in an attempt to ascertain the depth of the feature. The auger recovered cultural fill and artifacts as deep as 9 feet 10 inches below the bottom of Stage 4. For safety reasons, this fill was mechanically excavated as Stage 5, in roughly 50-cm levels, and screened through the power screen. Feature 3042 was identified as a cesspit on the basis of two lines of evidence. First, an analysis of privies and cesspits excavated elsewhere in Tucson indicated that cesspits are considerably deeper than privy pits (see Chapter 3 for a discussion on privies in Tucson). Secondly, although there was no evidence noted during excavation, it seemed likely, based on orientation, that the sewer pipe associated with Trench 183 connected Cesspit 3042 with 34 E. Alameda Street (Building T). The associated Tunnel 27071 also met the criteria for sewer connection. The top of the feature measured 9 by 6.5 feet in plan view but tapered to 7.5 by 6 feet near the end of hand-excavations. In higher elevations, the feature walls were surrounded by compact caliche matrix consistent with Natural Stratum II. Farther down, the external matrix changed to a thin layer of heavy gravels, which was defined as Natural Stratum III. This was followed by more caliche, similar to that found above. Near the bottom of hand-excavation, the caliche was replaced by Natural Stratum V, which consisted of highly structured, fine, orange-brown sand. No discrete layers of human waste were encountered in Cesspit 3042. However, a subterranean tunnel (Tunnel 27071) connected with its eastern wall (see Figure 88). This trench apparently served to move human waste from the adjacent cesspit (Feature 3040) into this feature. Although Tunnel 27071 measured 2 feet wide by 2 feet high where it abutted Cesspit 3040, erosion from the flow of waste had enlarged it considerably by the time it reached the eastern wall of Cesspit 3042. Because of this, it was not possible to determine the original dimensions of the western end of Tunnel 27071. Much of the fill of Cesspit 3042 was black to dark greenish brown, of a generally dense and claylike consistency (Strata VIa, e, and g, and VIIb). The generally low density of artifacts and the lack of stratification at the juncture with Tunnel 27071 seemed to suggest that this darker fill represented the waste flowing in from Cesspit 3040. These cultural strata appeared limited to the volume of the cesspit at or below the mouth of the tunnel. Further, they were interspersed with thinner layers of compacted refuse (Strata II and VId and f), implying that the feature was open to dumping from above while it functioned as a cesspit. 320 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Above this were two large midden strata (Strata IV and V), which were divided from one another by a concave charcoal lens. Both contained extremely dense concentrations of refuse and were excavated in several arbitrary levels because of their depths. The two cultural strata were distinguished by the deposits of dark brown to black ashy fill found within Stratum V but not IV. This may indicate that the Mahoney residence operated a woodstove that required periodic cleaning. The Wills, by contrast, may have installed a gas stove during their occupation; such appliances became very popular in the 1920s (Finney 1962). From 1903, gas lines were located in or near the project area. It should be noted that although the Wills could have simply disposed of their ashes elsewhere, this seemed unlikely given the domestic nature of the rest of the fill. Above the midden deposits were several layers of construction or demolition debris, divided into three cultural strata. Most were characterized primarily by the presence of adobe and clay bricks, building stone, and tan silty loam, although Stratum II consisted of burned fill and artifacts. Cesspit 3042 was also adjacent to a refuse deposit (Feature 3340), which was located north of the feature. The fill of Refuse Deposit 3340 and the top levels of Cesspit 3042 had some similarities, such as the presence of large adobe blocks. Interestingly, the wall of Cesspit 3042 was carved into an overhang directly below Refuse Deposit 3340, in a pattern reminiscent of the erosional action caused by the flow of liquid over an edge. Landscaping Feature 76 Feature 76 was a rounded tree pit measuring 28 by 35 inches in plan view. In profile, the feature was a shallow basin measuring 12.5 inches deep within Natural Stratum I. It was part of a linear alignment of three similar features across the backyard of 34 E. Alameda Street (Building T). The fill of the feature was silty loam that contained a small amount of historical-period refuse, including glass, metal, and burned faunal bones. The landscaping feature partially intruded on the upper fill near the south edge of Grave Pit 77. Landscaping Feature 79 Feature 79 was a roughly circular tree pit measuring 41 by 44 inches. In profile, the feature was a very shallow basin approximately 9 inches deep within Natural Stratum I. It was part of a linear alignment of three similar features across the backyard of 34 E. Alameda Street (Building T). The feature fill was silty loam; during mechanical stripping, metal and a few fragments of faunal bone were noted in the fill. Landscaping Feature 81 Feature 81 was an east-west-oriented subrectangular tree pit. The feature measured 35 by 31 inches in plan view and was 17 inches deep. It was excavated in two levels. The first level consisted of the top 3.5 inches of the feature and was more or less square in plan view. This level was surrounded by Natural Stratum I. In contrast, the second level represented a circular depression, approximately 13.5 inches deep, in the center of the feature and was surrounded by Natural Stratum II. There was very little cultural material, although the feature did contain the possible remains of a wooden post. The feature was part of an alignment of three similar tree pits in the backyard of 34 E. Alameda Street (Building T). Landscaping Feature 520 Feature 520 was a tree pit identified in the southeast corner of Lot 7 during mechanical stripping. It measured 27.5 by 39 inches in plan view and was 8 inches deep. A utility trench (Feature 99) intruded on the south end of this pit. The fill was yellowish brown, silty loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was bisected and only the western half was hand-excavated. 321 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Landscaping Feature 521 Feature 521 was a circular tree pit identified by mechanical stripping along the eastern portion of the southern edge of Lot 7. It measured 37 inches in diameter and was 13 inches deep. The fill was grayish brown, sandy loam with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was bisected and only the northern section was hand-excavated. Landscaping Feature 522 Feature 522 was a circular tree pit identified by mechanical stripping along the southern edge of Lot 7. It measured 33 by 35 inches in plan view and was 5 inches deep. The feature was located beneath a foundation (Feature 525) associated with a later car dealership. The fill was divided into two cultural strata consisting of tan, compact fill on top of loose, dark brown fill, the latter of which may have represented an organic layer resulting from root decomposition. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Excavation proceeded by bisecting the feature and hand-excavating the northern half. Landscaping Feature 523 Feature 523 was a circular tree pit identified during mechanical stripping along the western portion of the southern edge of Lot 7. It measured 37 inches in diameter and was 3 inches deep. The feature was disturbed on its west side by a gas line trench (Feature 524) and on its east side by a foundation (Feature 525) associated with a later car dealership. The fill was unstratified, grayish silty loam, high in decomposed organics, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Excavation proceeded by bisecting the feature and hand-excavating the northern half. Landscaping Feature 821 Feature 821 was a square tree pit identified during mechanical stripping. It measured 36 by 34 inches in plan view and was 4 inches deep. The matrix surrounding the feature was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Excavation was carried out by bisecting the feature and hand-excavating the southern half. No artifacts were recovered. The feature was located in the front yard of 34 E. Alameda Street (Building T). Landscaping Feature 830 Feature 830 was a circular tree pit identified during mechanical stripping, along the western portion of the southern edge of Lot 7. It measured 38 by 39 inches in diameter and was 5 inches deep. The fill was divided into two cultural strata, a tan, silty loam on top of a gray crumbly layer, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was bisected and the northern half was handexcavated. Small amounts of charcoal and glass were recovered. Pit 231 Feature 231 was a shallow circular pit encountered during mechanical stripping. It measured 17 by 19 inches and was 4 inches deep. It intruded on the northern wall of Grave Pit 537 but did not disturb the associated burial. The fill was yellowish brown silty loam, with a surrounding matrix of compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was located east of Building T and was hand-excavated in a single level and not bisected. No artifacts were recovered. 322 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Pit 620 Feature 620 was an east-west-oriented subrectangular pit identified on the west side of Lot 7 during mechanical stripping. It measured 25 by 50 inches in plan view and was 16 inches deep. The fill was fine loamy sand, and the feature was surrounded by Natural Stratum II, as well as the fill of Grave Pit 619. Although Pit 620 intruded into Grave Pit 619, which contained the remains associated with a burial that had been removed during the historical period, no artifacts were present in Pit 620. Pit 26791 Feature 26791 was an east-west-oriented subrectangular pit encountered near the southwest corner of Lot 7 during mechanical stripping. It measured 60 by 27 inches in plan view and was 20 inches deep. The pit was a steep-sided basin with a level floor that had been excavated into Natural Stratum II and filled with a sandy clay loam. A posthole (Feature 26799) intruded into the feature fill, but both features ended at an identical elevation. The feature was excavated in a single level, as a grave, but it was reclassified as a pit based on the paucity of recovered cultural materials. Refuse Pit 518 Feature 518 was an east-west-oriented oval refuse pit identified during mechanical stripping. It measured 57 by 41 inches in plan view. The density and type of materials observed were consistent with a refuse pit, and a sample was collected. Refuse Pit 531 Feature 531 was an east-west-oriented subrectangular refuse pit measuring 39 by 59 inches in plan view and 15 inches deep. The pit probably represented the remains of a wood or coal bin. The deposition of refuse probably occurred at the destruction of this bin. The fill was a silty loam common to the project area. In addition, the feature contained ash, medium-sized charcoal chunks, and artifacts, including cans and bottles. The feature was excavated in three arbitrary levels. Refuse Pit 531 was excavated 1 foot into the caliche of Natural Stratum II. The bottom edges of the feature were lined with milled lumber that measured 2–3 inches wide. On this frame were placed four wooden posts (Features 4508, 4509, 4521, and 4522), one in each corner. Each post appeared to be 2 inches wide by 3 inches long, and the preserved height was approximately 15 inches. The only deviation from this pattern was in the southwestern corner. When this corner was originally excavated, the workers appeared to have hit a buried area of concrete, possibly related to a nearby concrete pad (Feature 949). They left the concrete intact and built the wooden frame around the base of the intrusion. They then placed the corner post above the frame, on top of the concrete. Refuse Pit 531 was associated with an adjacent residential structure to the south (Building U), which was demolished prior to construction of an auto dealership on the parcel. When the auto dealership was razed, a trench (Feature 110) was excavated to remove the foundation of the western wall and intruded into this feature. Refuse Pit 623 Feature 623 was a large, irregular, north-south-oriented refuse pit measuring 19 by 9 feet in plan view and 1 foot deep. The fill was silty loam with inclusions of food bone, construction materials, and other historicalperiod debris. The pit appeared to have vertical sides with a level floor, and it was excavated into the caliche of Natural Stratum II. The pit’s location suggested that it may have been associated with the automobile dealership (Building B), although it might also have represented a borrow pit from the residential period. The refuse pit intruded into two graves (Grave Pits 634 and 635), extending across the entire depth of both features and disturbing sections of each coffin and burial. During the excavation of Grave Pit 634, a section 323 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest of Refuse Pit 623 was excavated in a single level, 5 feet long by 3 feet wide. It was during this excavation that later historical-period debris was noted. Another small area of Refuse Pit 623 was excavated with the fill of Grave Pit 635. Trench 108 Feature 108 was a sewer trench, 89 feet long by 1.5 feet wide and around 30 inches deep. It ran northwestsoutheast and contained a small section of 5-inch ceramic sewer pipe (Feature 289). The trench was excavated into compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. Although Trench 108 was not formally excavated in its entirety, it was noted approximately 55 cm below the top of a test pit located in the southeast corner of the northeast room of 48 E. Alameda Street (Building U). To reach this position, Trench 108 passed under all three northern walls of Building U. Once within this feature, a 3-foot-long branch of Trench 108 ended in the northeastern room. However, another branch continued south to the test pit and under the east-west interior wall, where it apparently entered the southeast room of the house. Trench 108 connected Building U to Cesspit 3040 and was likely part of the original construction of the building. The northern terminus of Trench 108 was uncovered during excavation of Cesspit 3040, protruding from the southeast corner of the feature wall. The pipe entered the cesspit approximately 3 feet from the ground surface, angling down from Building U at a slope of 1.67 percent. Trench 108 also intruded on two grave pits (Grave Pits 3068 and 3069). The trench was only tangential to Grave Pit 3068 but significantly intruded on the upper fill of Grave Pit 3069. However, it did not disturb the coffin or the burial, except for staining that indicated leaching from the trench. A concrete slab (Feature 979) associated with Building B intruded on a section of Trench 108, near its northern terminus. Tunnel 27071 Feature 27071 was a subterranean tunnel connecting two cesspits (Features 3040 and 3042) (see Figure 88) and was identified during the excavation of those features. Originally, the tunnel resembled a linear ditch with a V-shaped cross section. Where it abutted Cesspit 3040, the feature measured 2 feet high and 2 feet wide. It ran west approximately 3 feet, where it met the eastern edge of Cesspit 3042, sloping into that feature at an angle of 20°. Erosion from the flow of waste had destroyed the west end of the feature, causing extensive collapse at the junction with Feature 3042, which can be seen in the profile of the three features depicted in Figure 87. The feature was excavated by hand in 20-cm levels. The fill in the first two levels included a layer of greenish fill that sloped at an angle paralleling the feature floor, indicating flow of human waste from the bottom of Cesspit 3040 into 3042. The fill in the collapsed west end became more diffuse in color as it joined with the fill from Cesspit 3042. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Block 254, Lot 6 Cesspit 3042 contained 15 percent of all ceramics recovered from postcemetery contexts in the project area (n = 444; MVC = 132). Datable ceramics on this lot were made between 1875 and 1963, but the lot was occupied between 1890 and 1937. Semivitreous white-bodied earthenware sherds (n = 300; MVC = 72) made up 66 percent of ceramics in this feature. Hardpaste porcelain (n = 57; MVC = 27) and vitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 28; MVC = 4) sherds were the next most-common ceramic body types, followed by bone china (n = 11; MVC = 1), stoneware (n = 10; MVC = 9), and coarse earthenware (n = 3; MVC = 2). Sherds in this feature were from at least 132 individual vessels. About 44 percent of ceramic sherds in Cesspit 3042 (n = 201; MVC = 44) represented unidentified vessel forms. Sherds from plates (MVC = 25) and handled cups (MVC = 22) were the most plentiful identified vessel forms. Saucer (MVC = 16) and bowl (MVC = 11) 324 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 sherds were the next most-common vessels identified. Sherds from at least 5 pitchers, 3 tureens, and 2 storage jars were also recovered. The stratigraphic distribution of ceramic artifacts in Cesspit 3042 indicated that deposition of household items like tablewares was not consistent, but, rather, most likely occurred in several separate deposition events. Cesspit 3042 had 16 stratigraphic units and ceramic sherds were present in 14 of these strata. Because of the large volume of sediments removed during archaeological investigations (751.96 cubic feet), this feature had a low overall density of ceramic artifacts (0.6 per cubic foot or 0.02/m³). Ceramic sherds clustered in several strata or groups of strata that were separated by others with low densities of ceramic artifacts. Level 2 had the most sherds (n = 204) and the highest density of ceramic artifacts (2.34 per cubic foot or 0.07/m³). Below Level 2 was a group of strata, Level 3 through Stratum III, which yielded only 52 sherds and had a low density of ceramics (0.19 per cubic foot or less than 0.01/m³). Stratum IV had 61 sherds and a density of 1.08 per cubic foot (0.03/m³) and was separated by Stratum IV/V, which had no ceramics. Strata V and V/ VI had a combined total of 83 sherds and a density of 1.47 per cubic foot (0.04/m³), which contrasted with the lowest four strata that had only 38 sherds and a density of 0.41 per cubic foot (0.01/m³). The ceramic makers’ marks identified on sherds from Cesspit 3042 were primarily from the United States or the United Kingdom, but wares from Austria, Bavaria, China, and France were also present (Table 45). Most matching wares were from the same or adjacent stratigraphic units, indicating items were deposited in single deposition episodes throughout the use life of this feature. Hotelware was the only ceramic type found throughout the entire feature. Many of the makers’ marks in Cesspit 3042 were also identified in other features in the project area. This may be because residents of the project area purchased these items from the same merchants or because they had similar preferences for the same types of items. The residents were most likely influenced by the material culture in neighboring households and chose similar items for themselves. Cesspit 3042 yielded a total of 75 nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts from at least 32 items. About 76 percent of these artifacts were glass and 23 percent were metal. A stone mortar was the only culinary artifact that was not made of glass or metal. Tableware and culinary artifacts were recovered from 13 of the 16 stratigraphic units in this feature. Level 2 contained 39 percent of nonceramic tableware artifacts (n = 29); these were shards representing a large white glass bowl, a colorless tumbler, and 2 colorless pressed-glass stemware vessels with starburst decoration. Throughout this feature, glass artifacts were mostly from drinking vessels. Shards from 6 tumblers were recovered, 3 of which were pressed glass. Some of the pressed-glass tumblers were decorated with fluting and ribbing. Fragments from 6 stemware vessels were also recovered, including a cordial glass and a goblet. Two of the stemware vessels had an embossedstarburst design and a diamond pattern, and 2 other stemware vessels had an etched starburst design and an eight-pointed snowflake motif. Fragments of a bowl with a white glass rim, two mug handles, and shards from 3 unidentified vessels were also recovered. Metal culinary artifacts in Cesspit 3042 (n = 17; MVC = 12) were mostly from items used in food preparation. Fragments from at least 5 gray enamelware cooking vessels were recovered along with 3 cooking-pot handles. A large nonferrous kettle, a knife handle, and a spatula were also recovered. A promotional miniature Anheuser-Busch bottle made of metal was recovered from Stratum IV (Figure 89). Refuse Pit 623 and Cesspit 3042 held whole vessels and shards representing a minimum of 129 glass and metal food/beverage containers, including 77 bottles, 29 jars, and 23 cans. One hundred bottle/jar closures were also represented. All food/beverage containers and most of the bottle/jar closures were recovered from Cesspit 3042. The food/beverage glass with identifiable technology was primarily machine-made (42 percent, n = 45). Refuse Pit 623 was sampled, resulting in the recovery of 1 jar closure—a metal and cork stopper embossed “ELMO-PHILA/WIRZ INC [WIN]CHESTER PA PAT 5 25 15”. This artifact indicated a deposition perhaps as early as 1915. Food/beverage containers and closures were recovered from all 16 stratigraphic layers of Cesspit 3042. Bottles were recovered from every layer with the exception of one (Level 4). Contents for most of the bottles could not be identified. Evidence of at least 7 commercially packed food bottles, 6 unidentified beverage bottles, 1 extract bottle, 12 condiment bottles, and 6 milk bottles were found; the remainder were unidentified. Of note was a Heinz Chow Chow Pickle bottle (Figure 90), a round-bottomed soda-water bottle dating to between the 1870s and 1910s (Lindsey 2009), and an extract bottle from E. R. Durkee. Two Lea & Perrins’ Worcestershire sauce bottles; a fire-affected nursing bottle (Figure 91); and two local milk bottles, embossed “HALF PINT/TUCSON ICE CREAM CO./PHONE 51” (Figure 92) and “1/3 QUART/SUNSET DAIRY/ TUCSON, ARIZ”, were also recovered. The latter vessel was produced in 1930 based on the presence of a valve mark (Sutton and Arkush 2002) and a rim code (Schultz et al. 2009). Bottle closures included at least 325 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 4 glass stoppers (3 of which were Lea & Perrins’), 43 crown caps, and 2 metal screw caps. Jars were found in 6 of the 16 layers and were concentrated in the upper and middle of the pit. Most jar contents were not identified; however, at least 11 commercially packed food jars were found, including 2 condiments, one made by Best Foods, and a malted powder of Horlick’s, embossed on the front “HORLICKS/TRADE/MARK/ MALTED MILK/RACINE, WIS USA/SLOUGH BUCKS, ENG”. Horlick’s has produced malted powder since 1883 (Zumwalt 1980:249). Shards of at least 11 canning jars indicated that some home-canning activity occurred in the household. Jars manufactured by Ball, Mason, Kerr, and Everlasting were all observed, and jar closures included at least 2 screw caps, 12 lid liners, and 2 rubber seals. Metal cans were only present in 5 of the 16 stratigraphic layers. Can contents often could not be identified, although hole-and-cap and sanitary cans were both present. Evidence of at least 1 coffee, 2 canned-heat, 1 evaporated-milk, 3 unidentified food, 1 meat, 1 syrup, and 2 fish cans were found; the remainder were unidentified. Of note was a Log Cabin syrup can made by Patrick Towle between 1887 and 1957 (Rock 1987:51–54) and a can marked as “Hills Brothers Red Can Brand Coffee” produced between 1922 and 1942 (Lanford and Mills 2006:23–34). The presence of canned heat could suggest that the residents undertook a cooking/heating activity that did not involve a wood or gas stove; other uses for canned heat are discussed in the section below on Block 254, Lot 7, Cesspit 3040. Food and beverage containers from this feature that were temporally diagnostic indicated deposition perhaps as early as the first residential activity on the lot and continued until the lot was developed for commercial use. A total of 369 alcoholic beverage bottles and shards from at least 186 vessels were recovered from 15 strata within Cesspit 3042. Residents of this property had a clear preference for beer because 68 percent (n = 251; MVC = 127) of alcohol-vessel shards in this feature were from beer bottles. Twenty percent (n = 73; MVC = 39) of bottle remains were from distilled-spirits containers and 12 percent (n = 46; MVC = 20) were from wine or champagne bottles. However, alcohol-bottle remains were not evenly recovered throughout Cesspit 3042; they were concentrated in two distinct groups of strata. When combined, Strata II, III, and IV yielded 37 percent (n = 137) of alcohol-bottle shards at a density of 1.38 per cubic foot (0.04/m³). These three strata were only 13 percent of the total excavated volume (99.03 cubic feet or 2.80 m3). Stratum IV/V contained only 1 wine or champagne bottle shard and served as a divider between the clusters of strata that contained most of the alcohol-bottle remains. Strata V, V/VI, VIa, and VIb–e were only 12 percent of the excavated volume in this feature (89 cubic feet; 2.52 m3), but they contained 54 percent (n = 201; MVC = 124) of alcohol-bottle shards at a combined density of 2.26 per cubic foot (0.06/m³). The density of alcohol-bottle shards was greatest in Stratum VIa, which had 8.28 shards per cubic foot (0.23/m³). These artifact densities compared with an average density of 0.49 per cubic foot (0.07/m³) throughout the entire feature, and 0.07 per cubic foot (less than 0.001/m³) in the 8 strata outside these concentrations. Only 8 percent of shards (n = 31) were recovered from outside of these concentrations. Dates on spirits bottles were identified in 9 of the 15 stratigraphic levels that contained alcohol-bottle shards. Datable spirits bottles were from items made since 1867 and included three A. Van Hoboken and Company bottles (1892–1918) (Strata II, IV, and VIf–g); a bottle made by the Diamond Glass Company (1888–present) (Stratum V); three Sunnybrook Bourbon bottles (1904–1910) (Strata IV and V) (Figure 93; a bottle made by Adolphus Busch Glass Manufacturing (1886–1928) (Level 2); three Illinois Glass bottles (1873–1929) (Strata IV, V/IV, and VIa); and a Taylor and Williams whiskey bottle (1881–1910) (Stratum VIb–e) (Toulouse 1971:26, 91, 264–268, 550; Wilson and Wilson 1968:137, 141, 142)). A Fratelli Branca bottle (an Italian 78-proof herbal tonic) was recovered from Stratum IV (Figure 94). Despite its high alcohol content, this product was advertised as a medicinal tonic (Fike 2006:163). Wine and champagne bottle shards were primarily recovered from Strata V, V/VI, and VIa, representing 80 percent (n = 36; MVC = 14) of wine or champagne bottle shards in this feature. A smaller portion of wine or champagne shards, 13 percent (n = 6; MVC = 4), was recovered in Stratum IV. Most of the wine or champagne bottles had characteristics of hand-tooling. The only datable wine or champagne vessel from this feature was a bottle made by the Illinois Pacific Glass Company between 1902 and 1929 (Whitten 2009). Approximately 68 percent (n = 251) of the alcohol-vessel remains were from at least 127 beer bottles. About 45 percent (n = 113; MVC = 27) of beer bottle fragments were recovered above Stratum IV/V, and 55 percent (n = 138; MVC = 100) came from below that stratum. Median manufacture dates derived from at least 52 beer bottles above and below Stratum IV/V indicate the deposit directly above that stratum was approximately 15 years younger than the deposit directly below. At least 10 beer bottles in Strata II, III, and IV were made between 1901 and 1956 and had a median manufacture date of 1929.5. At least 42 bottles made between 1900 and 1929 had a median manufacture date of 1914.4. Dates were derived from previously noted bottle manufacturers (Lockhart 2006a; Toulouse 1971:264–268, 403, 432; Whitten 2009). 326 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Cesspit 3042 and Refuse Pit 623 yielded complete and fragmented clothing fasteners. Most of the clothing fasteners and all clothing fabric were recovered from Cesspit 3042. Undecorated buttons were most prevalent. Men’s, women’s, and babies’ clothing were indicated. Nine of the 16 stratigraphic layers in Cesspit 3042 produced clothing fasteners, and this feature contained the widest variety of clothing fasteners on this lot. Buttons, present primarily in Stratum IV, included sew-through, uniform, wire, loop, drilled-eye, embedded wire, unidentified shank, and cross bar/D-hole types. Sizes suggested a variety of garments from lingerie or babies’ clothing to pants and coats. Two coatsize buttons were inlaid with green glass-paste jewels (Figure 95). Southern Pacific Railroad uniform buttons were recovered in the middle stratigraphic layers (Figure 96). Two were stamped on their fronts with “CONDUCTOR” and “WATERBURY CO” on their backs. Although The Waterbury Button Company has been in operation since 1812 (The Waterbury Button Company 2008), the Southern Pacific Railroad came to Tucson in 1880 (Mabry et al. 1994:3), indicating that these buttons date from 1880 or later. Two plastic (possibly celluloid) dress- or vest-sized drilled-eye shank buttons (Figure 97) were recovered from Stratum IV. At least two large safety pins were present. Ten of the 16 stratigraphic layers in Cesspit 3042 yielded clothing fabric, including cotton, silk, leather, and an unknown material. Tightly woven, ribbed, brown and tan cotton fragments suggested a variety of garments such as socks, sweaters, and dresses. Finely woven, black cotton stocking fragments were recovered in Strata II, IV, and V. Silk fragments were recovered from upper and lower stratigraphic layers and suggested a number of garments from shirts, blouses, and dresses to silk waists and pocket squares. Leather fragments, recovered in the middle stratigraphic layers (Stratum IV and V/VI) represented a minimum of one belt and at least one glove. Refuse Pit 623 yielded unidentified rubber and ferrous metal buttons. The size of the metal button indicated that it was used on a vest or pants. No maker’s mark was observed on the rubber button and it may have been homemade (Sutton and Arkush 2002:212). Cesspit 3042 produced over 500 shoe-related artifacts representing at least 14 shoes. The remnants of at least 1 man’s shoe and 1 woman’s dress shoe, both with stacked-leather heels, were recovered from Level 3. Stratum IV contained over 300 shoe fragments, including a woman’s leather flat (with machine stitching) that was nearly complete, the remains of at least 1 other pair of a woman’s leather shoes, fragments representing at least 1 man’s leather shoe with a rubber heel, and parts of a single leather moccasin with a fur-lined interior, machine stitching, and a dyed swirl design on the upper (Figure 98). One gray rubber heel likely from a man’s shoe and various leather fragments from at least 2 shoes—possibly 2 of the adult-sized shoes represented in Stratum IV—were recovered from Stratum V. Artifacts representing at least 1 left shoe (unknown size) and 1 canvas shoe, likely with a rubber sole, were found in Strata V/VI and VIa. Fragments representing at least 1 pair of a man’s leather shoes (with Goodyear welts and brass eyelets) were recovered from Stratum VIf–g, and a pair of smaller leather shoes, likely belonging to a woman, were represented in the artifact collection from Stratum VIf–g. Goodyear welts were produced first around 1912 (Berge 1980:275–278), providing a terminus post quem date for the deposits in (and above) Stratum VIf–g. None of the leather shoes or shoe parts preserved their original color. Nine of the 16 stratigraphic layers of Cesspit 3042 produced personal artifacts; beauty/cosmetic items made up most of the personal artifacts from this lot. Health and hygiene items were observed primarily in the middle to lower stratigraphic layers of the feature. A toothpaste bottle embossed “COLGATE & CO./ PERFUMERS/NEW YORK” retained a paper label fragment reading “DENTAL/POM[A]DE/[CL]EANSE AND WHITEN T[EETH]/COLGATE C[O]/NEW YORK, U.S.A.” According to an online company history (Colgate-Palmolive 2009), Colgate & Co. became “perfumers” in 1866. Two colorless jars held Vaseline products and were made between 1880 and 1955 (Fike 2006:56). A complete bottle that once held hydrogen peroxide, its contents produced by French chemist Charles Marchand between 1897 and 1948 (Fike 2006:149), was also recovered. Charles Marchand published a guide on the uses of hydrogen peroxide and his applications were voluminous (Marchand 1895). Included were recommendations of douching and enema solutions, mouth and eyewash solutions, and inhalation. Two ferrous tins had external-friction lids and may have contained salve, ointment, or shoe polish. Evidence from at least one bottle contained residue that may have been talcum powder, tooth powder, or powdered soap. A rubber syringe nozzle and tubing fragments would have been used with hot-water bottles and fountain syringes for douching/enemas. A glass plunger from this feature may have been used with a fountain syringe. One unidentified-plastic toothbrush handle was recovered as were two handles of bone imprinted “FRANCE” and “SPECIAL QUALITY/STERILIZED”; another was not marked. One unidentified-plastic dressing-comb fragment was imprinted “No 202 I.R. COMB CO’S UNBREAK[ABLE GOODYEAR 1851]”; another was unmarked. A rubber dressing-comb fragment was also recovered. A glass rod applicator may have been used to apply iodine to wounds. At least 327 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest two razors were represented by a safety head, a safety guard, a single-edge blade, and two handles. A rectangular base plate was also present and may have been a part of a pair of hair clippers or beard trimmer. Two glass eyedroppers were also recovered. Evidence of at least 3 perfume bottles, 1 perfume and/or hair product bottle, 17 shoe-polish bottles, and 5 milk-glass cosmetic jars were present. One of the perfume bottles was embossed “DORIN/PARIS”. Maison Dorin was a perfumery as early as 1780, and since 1998, the company has been managed by France Excellence (France Excellence n.d.). The Dorin/Paris perfume bottle was recovered from Stratum IV. A bottle containing a perfume or hair tonic product was produced by Ed Pinaud, a well-known French perfumer in business beginning in 1830 (Pinaud 2009). S. M. Bixby & Co. produced shoe polish contained in at least 3 of the bottles recovered. According to a 1895 New York Times article (November 1, 1895), the Bixby company started in 1862, failed in 1877, but was incorporated the following year and continued until 1895 when it failed again. All 3 of the Bixby bottles were recovered in Stratum VIf–g, as was the Ed Pinaud bottle. Four colorless-glass gallon jugs from this feature once contained shampoo. Illinois Pacific Glass and Maywood Glass made 2 of the shampoo jugs between 1925 and 1930 and ca. 1958 (Toulouse 1971:268, 357); both were found in Stratum IV. The Maywood jug had a paper label remnant that read: “J M Marrow/Oil Treatment”. No additional information could be found for this product. One rectangular and an oval tin once contained an unidentified personal product. Closures from personal product containers were also represented. At least 1 threaded-metal cap from a Vaseline product jar, 2 metal dispenser caps from Colgate bottles, and a perforated metal top from a powder bottle were recovered. Additionally, this cesspit contained evidence of at least 1 perfume-bottle stopper, 1 cork associated with a perfume bottle, 1 metal sprinkler top associated with a bottle of a liquid cosmetic preparation, 1 metal-and-cork pump associated with a lotion bottle, and 8 corkand-metal stoppers with applicator brushes (associated with shoe polish bottles). Accessories from Cesspit 3042 included a fragment of a finger ring carved from bone; a small brass pendant stamped with a dot and floral pattern; a bracelet or chain for a watch band stamped with a cross; the backing to a pendant; a gold-plated necklace chain; a plain, nonferrous concho with rectangular perforations to accommodate a strap; a fob chain for a pocket watch; a gold band finger ring stamped “18K = ”; a nonferrous, undecorated thimble; and a brass pendant or medallion marked “CALIFORNIA” with the profile of a grizzly bear (the California state animal) (Figure 99). Also recovered was a hand-painted, hardpaste porcelain accessory (Figure 100) that may have been a button, brooch, or hatpin. A polychrome floral design was painted on its face, with raised gold dots and a gilded rim. Patina on its back suggests that it was mounted in a metal frame; the number “118” was impressed in its back. Fragments of a pocket watch, including the case; spring clips imprinted “EXCELSIOR”; and a metal-rimmed glass cover were recovered. At least four pairs of eyeglasses were represented by a colorless-glass lens, an olive-colored glass lens, a complete pair of gold-plated eyeglasses with ear pieces (Figure 101), and an almost complete pair of eyeglasses with frame and lenses intact. Black unidentified-plastic hairpin fragments and a brass barrette were recovered. Two pocket knives had bone and shell handles. Purse fragments included a metal frame and part of a clasp, and finely woven, unidentified fabric. An umbrella was represented by a metal runner with slits for the stretcher attachment. Cesspit 3042 contained a total of 260 medicine-related artifacts; 98 percent (n = 256; MVC = 144) were bottles and bottle fragments. The remaining 2 percent included three cylindrical glass-tubing fragments that may have been from ampoules or test tubes and a metal pill box with a snap-fit lid. Throughout the feature, 41 percent (n = 106; MVC = 63) of artifacts were from hand-finished bottles, 43 percent (n = 112; MVC = 60) were from completely machine-made vessels, and the manufacturing technique was unidentified for 16 percent (n = 42; MVC = 21). Cesspit 3042 was divided into 16 stratigraphic levels and medicine-related artifacts were recovered from 14 layers. The overall density of medicinal artifacts was 0.35 per cubic foot (0.01/ m³), but artifacts in Cesspit 3042 were concentrated in stratigraphic groups with higher-than-average artifact densities that were separated by strata with low densities of medicinal artifacts. A stratigraphic group that included Strata Ia–c, II, III, and IV had 57 percent (n = 148; MVC = 75) of the medicine-related artifacts and a density of 0.95 per cubic foot (0.027/m³). Medicine-related artifacts were most dense in Stratum IV, which contained 37 percent (n = 97; MVC = 58) and a density of 1.72 per cubic foot (0.048/m³). Another group, consisting of Strata V and V/VI contained 13 percent of medicinal artifacts (n = 33; MVC = 21) and an artifact density of 0.58 per cubic foot (0.016/m³). About 15 percent (n = 37; MVC = 25) of medicinal artifacts were recovered from Strata VIb–e and VIf–g, which had a combined density of 0.63 per cubic foot (0.018/m³). Medicines represented in Cesspit 3042 suggested that residents routinely treated a number of common ailments with proprietary medicines. Embossing and labels on 70 medicine bottles summarized in Table 46 328 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 provided information on bottle manufacturers and medicines disposed of in the cesspit. Products made by compounding pharmacists (MVC = 3) were rare in Cesspit 3042 and the contents of those bottles are unknown. The pharmacy of Will H. Minor of Yuma (1892–1933) and the Stewart and Holmes Drug Company of Seattle (1890–1904) were the only identified professional pharmacists represented (Bethman 1991:813; Fike 2006:72). Bottles made for professional pharmacists were only recovered from Stratum IV (MVC = 1), which contained the largest number of medicinal bottles, and Stratum VIb–e (MVC = 2), which had no proprietary medicines. Of all stratigraphic levels where medicine-related artifacts were recovered, the upper six (Levels 1, 2, and 3 and Strata Ia–c, II, and III) contained only proprietary medicines or unidentified medicine bottles. Artifact 08000308F was a small amber-glass pill bottle recovered from Stratum IV of Cesspit 3042. The bottle was complete and contained at least 30 light-blue, hand-rolled pills measuring about 3/8 inches in diameter (Figure 102). Prior to mechanization of the pill-making process in the twentieth century, pills were split into a measured dose with a pill machine or pill press and were rounded into a pellet by hand (Sonnedecker et al. 2002:39). The bottle was made for the Parke Davis Company between 1875 and 1920 (Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:86–87, 127; Whitten 2009). Parke Davis was a large pharmaceutical company that was founded in 1871 in Detroit, Michigan. During the late nineteenth century, Parke Davis designed and developed specific bottles for their medicines that were made for the company by larger glassworks. This amberglass bottle was designed to protect medicines from deterioration by sunlight (Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:86–87). By the early twentieth century, Parke Davis was at the forefront of scientific pharmacology in the United States (Parascandola 1990:33). Despite the fact that this bottle was designed for use by Parke Davis, it is unknown if the vessel was reused by a compounding pharmacist outside the company. A sample of the pills was submitted to the University of Arizona for Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance mass spectrometry (FTMS) analysis, which revealed a very large number of chemical compounds in the pills recovered from Artifact 08000308F. Because of the extreme precision of this analysis, over 500 compounds were detected. These were mostly a homologous series of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Despite the fact that the resulting scan was not completely interpreted, a large number of fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids, and mono- and triple-oxygenated compounds and their derivatives were identified. These compounds are indicative of a large number of naturally occurring fats and esters resulting from their decay (Somogyi, personal communication 2009). The dichloromethane extract of the solid pellet sample analyzed by this mass spectrometry analysis resulted in a more complex chromatogram indicating the presence of a large number of volatile components. The analysis also indicated the presence of natural oil components trapped either in the pellet matrix or on the surface of it (Somogyi, personal communication 2009). It is unknown if infiltration into the archaeological deposit after the deposition of this artifact increased the number of chemicals detected in mass spectrometry analysis. The few identified compounds in Artifact 08000308F included benzoic, palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids. Benzoic acid is a naturally occurring compound derived from a number of gum-producing plants. Benzoin has been known since antiquity and used for incense, perfume, and as a preservative, but it also has antiseptic, stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic properties (Tyler et al. 1988:154–155). Palmitic acid is a plasticizer derived from palm oil (Claus et al. 1970:151). Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid used as a plasticizer and is found in a large number of natural fats and oils (Tyler et al. 1988:96–97). Oleic acid is a primary fatty acid in almond and olive oils and is a soothing pain reliever useful for inflammation. Oleic acid is also a laxative and is used in soaps and liniments or as moisturizer (Claus et al. 1970:146). Although these compounds hint at potential contents of the pills, each of these compounds are found in a large number of naturally occurring oils and fats; thus, the pharmacological properties of this medicine were not identified. Twelve recreational artifacts were recovered from Cesspit 3042. Stratum Ia–c contained a fragment of a parian doll’s forehead and Stratum II held a red glass marble and part of (possibly the same) parian doll’s face. Stratum III contained two whole parian doll boots, made with grooves around their tops to which soft doll parts would have been attached. Stratum IV produced the head and neck of a toy horse made of soft rubber (originally a white or cream color), a rubber ball fragment, a complete parian doll arm, a battered green glass marble, part of a pigskin football, and a whole metal skate key for adjusting the size of roller skates. Finally, Stratum VIb–e contained part of a barbless fishhook missing its head. Twelve smoking-related artifacts were recovered from Cesspit 3042. Seven of the artifacts were fragments of pocket tobacco tins, none with identifying marks, recovered from different levels throughout the feature. The remaining five artifacts, all excavated from Stratum II, consisted of fragments of a light-green Depression-glass ashtray with a geometric pattern on the underside. 329 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Over 100 hundred communication-related artifacts were found in Cesspit 3042. Thirteen slate-board fragments, 2 parts of a soapstone stylus, and 2 pencil fragments were excavated from Levels 2 and 3. Artifacts recovered from Stratum IV included a whole, colorless-glass ink bottle, and a metal embossing tool labeled “THE BUCKEYE AND CALUMET ARIZONA COPPER MINING CO./SEAL/INCOR-PORATED”. This mining company was organized in April, 1906, in the Owl Head Mining District. Its offices were located in Red Rock, Pinal County, Arizona. The mine never entered operation, and in 1909, it was said to be “presumably idle” (Copper Handbook 1909:417). By 1914, it was identified as “probably defunct” (Copper Handbook 1914:159). Also recovered from Cesspit 3042 were 2 parts of a rotating-wheel rubber-stamp mechanism, 8 wooden stamp blocks, 2 typesetter parts (“D” and “3,” cut into linoleum and mounted on wooden blocks), 2 fragments of a metal paper clasp, and a leather book cover with the Knights of Pythias symbol on the cover. The Knights of Pythias is a fraternal organization founded in Washington, D.C., in 1864, whose purpose is to “promote friendship among men and to relieve suffering” (Supreme Lodge Knights of Pythias 2008). Numerous paper and newspaper fragments were recovered from Strata IV, V, and V/VI; the Tucson Citizen was represented and perhaps another Arizona newspaper. Legible text included local and international news, and rental advertisements dated 1916 and 1917. Writing utensils recovered from Stratum IV consisted of 20 pencil fragments, 2 fragments of chalk or crayon, and 3 pieces of a black fountain pen manufactured by the Sanford Ink Company. Finally, Strata V–VIa–g produced multiple newspaper fragments, 8 pencil fragments, the reservoir portion of a fountain pen, and 4 fragments of a cork stopper for a mucilage or paste bottle with an attached brush. The fountain pen was labeled “TORREDO NO 830/EAGLE PENCIL CO NEW YORK PAT. JULY 20, 1909”, indicating that it was produced by the Eagle Company sometime after that date. A complete, round colorless-glass ink bottle was embossed “SANFORDS INKS” (produced after 1857) (Sanford Brands 2005). One large, aqua bulk-ink bottle was embossed “THOMAS INKS/L.H. THOMAS CO./CHICAGO U.S.A.” Thomas Inks began production in Michigan but had opened a factory in Chicago by about 1880; it was one of the favored inks of government departments (Johnson 1879:319; Stevenson 1916:14). Cesspit 3042 also produced a Lincoln “Wheat Ear” penny manufactured in 1920. The coin, which was recovered from Stratum IV, provided a terminus post quem of 1920 for that level. Ten weaponry artifacts were collected from Cesspit 3042. All weaponry was related to firearms and included a percussion cap, six cartridges and casings, two shotgun shells and part of a lever-action rifle. These artifacts were recovered from 5 of the 16 analytical strata in this feature: Strata II, IV, VIa, VIf–g, and VIIa–b. Stratum VIa–b contained four ammunition artifacts, the most of any stratum in this feature. Ammunition in Cesspit 3042 was for revolvers and sporting shotguns and rifles. Shotgun shells included a 12-gauge made by the Peters Cartridge Company (1887–1934) and an unidentified 16-gauge shell (Goodman 1998:n.p.). The six cartridges included three .44 centerfire casings made by Winchester Repeating Arms. The .44 was introduced for the Winchester Model 1873 and was also adopted for Colt revolvers in 1878. In the United States, firearms have not been made for this cartridge since 1942 (Barnes 2006:96). A centerfire cartridge for a .38 Winchester in this feature was made by the United States Cartridge Company (1868–1919) (Goodman 1998:n.p.). Introduced in 1874, the .38 Winchester was made as a companion cartridge to the 44-40 and was chambered for Colt revolvers in 1878. Despite its popularity, production of the .38 Winchester was discontinued in 1937 (Barnes 2006:92). Cesspit 3042 also contained a .44 Special cartridge designed by Smith and Wesson. Introduced in 1907 for both Colt and Smith and Wesson revolvers, the .44 Special is known as an accurate, powerful big-bore revolver cartridge (Barnes 2006:305). A .22 short cartridge was also recovered from Cesspit 3042. The only firearms-related artifact that was not ammunition was a fragment from an unidentified lever-action rifle that was recovered from Stratum IV. Most of the 18 transportation-related artifacts on this lot were recovered from Cesspit 3042; Refuse Pit 623 only contained half of a horseshoe. In Cesspit 3042, transportation-related artifacts were identified in 3 of the feature’s 16 stratigraphic units. Stratum II contained a horseshoe and Stratum VIb–e contained 2 figure-eight-shaped fragments from a horse harness. Stratum IV contained about 72 percent of the transportation-related artifacts on this lot (n = 13). Most of the transportation artifacts in this stratum were automotive, except for a square metal fragment used as decoration on horse tack and a two-handed wagon wrench or valve wrench. Automobile artifacts were primarily related to car tires and included the metal rim cord from a truck tire, 4 fragments from an inner tube, 2 complete and 1 fragmented air valve from a tire, rubber automotive hose fragments, and the rubber bead reinforcement for a heavy-duty truck tire. The oil reservoir and air valve for an automotive hydraulic lift were also recovered from this feature. Residences on this block were demolished in 1954 prior to the erection of Durazzo’s Union 76 Service station. Nearly all (99 percent, n = 2,493) of the 2,508 construction artifacts on this lot were recovered from Cesspit 3042. Refuse Pit 623 yielded 5 concrete fragments and 9 nail fragments. A single wire nail fragment 330 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 was recovered from Landscaping Pit 79. Cesspit 3042 was composed of 16 stratigraphic units, and construction materials and hardware-related artifacts were recovered from 12 of these units. Although the overall density of construction artifacts was 3.32 per cubic foot (0.09/m³), most of these artifacts were concentrated in two discrete clusters of strata. Strata Ia–c–IV contained 1,511 of all construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts and had a combined density of 9.7 per cubic foot (0.27/m³). This cluster of strata was divided by Stratum IV/V, which only contained 3 construction and hardware artifacts. Below this stratum was a cluster of strata with a higher than average density of construction and hardware artifacts. Strata V through VIIa–b contained 968 artifacts and had a combined density of 6.48 per cubic foot (0.18/m³). This contrasted with the lowest 5 stratigraphic units of this feature, Levels 1–5, which most likely represented sediments deposited when the cesspit was still in use. These strata contained 58 percent of the feature’s volume but contained only 11 construction artifacts—less than 0.01 percent of construction artifacts in this feature. The artifact density in Levels 1–5 was 0.025 per cubic foot (less than 0.001/m³). Additionally, no nails were recovered from these 5 stratigraphic units. Strata Ia–c–IV and Strata V–VIIa–b represented stratigraphic units that were deposited when the cesspit was no longer in use. These strata contained 42 percent of the feature’s volume and more than 99.5 percent (n = 2,482) of construction artifacts in the feature. The average artifact density in these strata was 7.84 per cubic foot (0.22/m³), but artifact density was variable. Construction and hardware artifacts were most prevalent in Strata II (n = 479; 20.66 per cubic foot or 0.58/m³) and IV (n = 716; 12.69 per cubic foot or 0.36/m³). Construction materials and hardware-related artifacts in Cesspit 3042 included a variety of fasteners, architectural materials, hardware, and tools. Nails and nail fragments (n = 1,328) and window glass (n = 329) were 66 percent of construction artifacts. Complete common wire nails of various sizes were identified in this feature including 2d (n = 83), 3d (n = 11), 4d (n = 11), 5d (n = 18), 6d (n = 25), 7d (n = 22), 8d (n = 90), 9d (n = 2), 10d (n = 13), 12d (n = 6), 16d (n = 4), 20d (n = 9), 30d (n = 1), 50d (n = 1), and 60d (n = 2). One roofing tack was also identified. Other significant artifact types included linoleum fragments (n = 82), some of which were decorated with pink and yellow pastel flowers, paint chips and paint can fragments with a double-rolled lip (n = 66), metal plumbing pipe (n = 59), miscellaneous wire (n = 17), rubber hose fragments (n = 83), brass hose couplings and nozzles (n = 14), washers (n = 13), screws (n = 15), metal hooks (n = 13), and two ceramic flooring tiles. Electrical-related artifacts (n = 111) included miscellaneous electrical components (n = 37), electric wire fragments (n = 33), battery fragments (n = 20), and ceramic utility insulators and insulator fragments (n = 10). One of the insulators was made by the Thomas and Sons Company (1884–1957) (Gish 2009a). Paint observed on can fragments was colored orange, pastel green, black, and white. Identified tools included a wood chisel, at least three paintbrushes, three flat files, two wood planes, remains of a jointed boxwood rule and a wooden ruler, the blades from a pair of shears, a whetstone, and an industrial razor blade similar to a box cutter. Identified wrenches included a standard 3/4-inch wrench, a square pipe wrench used on valves, and a double-ended wrench. Cesspit 3042 produced 18 dry-cell battery fragments, 42 electrical components of metal or rubber, 2 partial and 8 complete ceramic insulators, and well over 100 lamp and lightbulb fragments. Metal fragments of a hand-cranked electrical generator, the metal contact base to a flashlight, and hard-rubber fragments from electrical sockets or tubing were some of the electrical components from this feature. Lightbulb fragments recovered from Level 2 included the casing and filament of a small olive-green glass bulb, likely used in a flashlight. Level 2 and Stratum IV produced a few colorless-glass shards from oil or kerosene lantern chimneys that were decorated with a crimped or pie-crust design near the rim. About a dozen shards from Levels 3 and 5 appeared to represent at least 1 opaque lamp globe, and well over 50 shards from Strata IV, V, and V/VI appeared to have come from at least 1 desk-lamp shade with a white interior and dark green exterior. Two dry-cell battery fragments from Stratum V/VI were labeled “No. 6/Columbia/Ignitor/Patented September 6th, 1910” and thus postdated 1910. One complete electrical adapter from Stratum IV was marked “HUBBELL/660W.250V” and was made to convert a light socket into an electrical outlet. A hard-rubber and metal electrical socket from the same stratum had the word “ARROW” pressed into the rubber. One of the ceramic insulators from Stratum IV had a maker’s mark consisting of a “T” surrounded by a circle, and 2 others from Stratum VIIa–b were marked “PATENT A LD” and “ THERE SMFG CO/1139 C”. The base of 3 whole or partial lightbulbs from Stratum VIb–e were marked “EDISON/MAZDA” (n = 2) and “NATIONAL/ MAZDA” (n = 1), indicating that they were manufactured between 1909 and 1945 (Nelson 2008). A large variety of household artifacts was recovered from 9 of the 16 stratigraphic layers of Cesspit 3042. Included were seven brass curtain-ring fragments, three fragments of a nonferrous metal rod with an end cap to a pull shade, ferrous curtain-rod fragments, and colorless-glass towel rod fragments. Also collected were the wrapped wire that would have held the straw of a broom to its wooden handle, an upholstery button, a 331 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest circular curtain weight with a hole in the middle, a metal drawer pull and knob, a metal latch to a slide lock, a lock plate for a metal door, and a metal trunk or lock box clasp stamped “PATENTED”/”NOV 1st 1864 . . . 1875”. At least nine keys were recovered, including brass and undetermined ferrous barrel and warded lock (skeleton) keys. Four barrel keys were embossed “S.R.CO”, “FREIGHT”, “FRANCIS KEYS”, and “ . . . F. RR”; information specific to these companies was not found. Two padlocks and two clothespin springs were recovered, and at least one upholstery tack was found. Fragments from other containers included at least one terracotta flowerpot and one terracotta flowerpot saucer, one semivitreous white-bodied earthenware chamber pot, a small ferrous poultry feeder, four fragments representing a minimum of one nonferrous bucket, at least three machine-made glass vases, and a machine-made glass stopper. The chamber pot was stamped “Ironstone/China/Powell & Bishop,” indicating a manufacture date between 1878 and 1891 (Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:311). Stove parts consisted of at least two ferrous stove grates, a stove/broiler fire box, sheets of mica from an oven door window, and an iron stove/broiler firebox damper. At least two whole machinemade bottles and 53 fragments representing at least three machine-made gallon jugs and one gallon jug with unidentified technology were present. Two fabric dye bottles were embossed “2 1/2 OZ /CARPENTERMORTON CO/COLORITE/BOSTON, MASS” and dated between 1892 and 1953 (Fike 2006:54). All jugs originally held cleaning solution. Illinois Pacific Glass produced one of the jugs between 1902 and 1925 (Toulouse 1971:268). Southern Glass Co. made one between 1917 and 1931 (Toulouse 1971:457). A hollow bisque porcelain hobo figurine bore the stamped mark “3534” (Figure 103). The figurine was inspired by a comic strip character known as “Happy Hooligan,” created by American newspaper cartoonist Frederick B. Opper. The comic ran from 1900 until 1932 (Library of Congress 2006; Ohio Historical Society2010). Other household artifacts recovered from this feature included a metal cap used on the bottom of a table leg, 15 fragments of at least two nonferrous finials, fragments of rubber band, laundry bluing balls, and two fragments representing at least one pair of small nonferrous shears/scissors. Temporally diagnostic household items from this feature were not helpful in refining our understanding of deposition activity, as they were in production both before and after this feature was in use, spanning a range from 1878 and 1953. Cesspit 3042 contained the largest collection of faunal remains from any of the sampled contexts, well over 4,000 fragments (Tables 47–53). Overall, throughout all the levels and strata of the feature, just two species—chickens and cows—dominated the collection in terms of fragments and MNI; almost 40 chickens were represented in the pit (see Table 53). The beef cuts that were found—axial cuts, generally steaks selected from along the vertebral column and pelvis—were approximately four times as common as were roast or round steaks, cuts selected from limbs; they were also much more common than ribs. Thus it may have been more common for this household to purchase and consume steaks, although of course roasts are larger and thus fewer such cuts may provide as much meat as a larger number of steaks. The distribution of the cuts of mutton (or those from similarly sized animals) was broadly similar to that for beef cuts. Vertebral and pelvic slices of bone outnumbered those from limbs and ribs; yet the difference, on the order of 1.5:1 for the axial cuts vs. the limbs, and 3:1 for the former vs. ribs, was not so dramatic as was the case for beef. It is also interesting to note that a nearly complete sheep or goat scapula, representing a shoulder roast, was recovered from this deposit. Pork cuts were principally from the hind legs, with some large cuts representing hams and ham steaks. Some front-leg cuts may also have been intended as hams or steak cuts, in addition to the vertebral and pelvic cuts present. Aside from large mammals and chickens, other species, for example rabbits, were also present. According to fragment counts, rabbits were not very prominent in this context, but nonetheless this feature did return the highest MNI for rabbit. Thus it seems that these small mammals may have been a more regular source of meat than the fragment counts would lead us to believe. The discussion of this stratified feature’s faunal content moves from highest to lowest levels, and therefore begins with the machine-excavated levels before moving on to the hand-excavated strata. Level 1 of Cesspit 3042 contained equal amounts of bird and mammal bones; most of the birds were chicken or chicken-sized. Other species in this sparse collection included rodents as well as cattle- and sheep/goat-sized bones. Level 2 also contained a large number of chicken bones, but in general the sample appeared to be not only larger (about four times as large as that from Level 1) but also more balanced, with many bones also from large domesticated animals such as pigs, cattle, and sheep or goats. In addition to these food remains were bones of rodents, which were probably accidental inclusions, as well as a few dog (or coyote) bones, perhaps dumped there as a way of getting rid of a pet’s carcass, an unwanted puppy, or possibly the remains of coyote caught prowling. Level 3 produced a small sample of bone, totaling less than 50 fragments. Approximately half the material recovered was from cow or cow-sized mammals, with other domesticated animals—both mammals and birds—making up nearly all of the remainder. The only wild animal was a Gambel’s quail, a small chickenlike bird native to Arizona that, to judge from its relative 332 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 ubiquity throughout the features in the project area, was probably hunted and sold in city markets alongside domesticated fowl. The collection from Level 5 was dominated by unidentifiable fragments of mammalian bone, from animals the size of sheep and goats or larger. Aside from those bones, which made up somewhat more than two-thirds of the sample, a few cattle, rabbit or hare, dove, quail, and chicken bones were also identified. Therefore, the collection was both larger and somewhat more diverse, especially in its inclusion of wild-game species, than other samples so far discussed. Stratum Ia–c, the highest of the hand-excavated strata in this feature, contained very few bones, totaling less than 10. Most of these were from very-large-sized or extra-large-sized mammals, in addition to an antelope jackrabbit and another (unidentifiable) rabbit or hare elements. Stratum II, similar to the preceding stratum, also produced only a small sample of bones. The identified bones were divided between domesticated mammals like cattle, sheep and/or goats, which formed the bulk of the collection, and a minority component consisting mainly of wild birds and a small, rabbit-sized mammal. The collection from Stratum III, although larger than the preceding ones, nonetheless totaled less than 100 specimens. Not surprisingly, it was dominated by bones of sheep/goat- and cattle-sized mammals, in addition to a number of bones that could have been from animals of either size class but which remained unidentifiable. The other major component of this collection was bird, many from unidentifiable species. Identifiable bird elements included bones from various gallinaceous birds such as chickens, quail, and turkeys. Stratum IV was the highest stratum to contain a sizable collection of faunal remains within Cesspit 3042, with nearly 700 pieces of bone. Although the collection was dominated by bones of domesticated mammals, mainly cattle or at least cattle-sized mammals (most likely cattle), as well as sheep or sheep/goat-sized mammals, there were also significant numbers of bird bones in the sample. All identified bird bones, and in fact probably all of the unidentified avian elements as well, came from gallinaceous birds. Chicken bones were the most numerous, followed by those of turkeys and Gambel’s quail. The only other taxa in this collection included a single bone from a Coho salmon, a Pacific Coast fish, and a few rodent elements. Stratum IV/V contained many fewer bones than did the strata above and below it. Approximately three-quarters of the faunal remains in this stratum were cattle, with the remainder divided between domesticated birds and other domesticated barnyard grazers. Stratum V contained, by far, the largest collection from any single layer; around half the contents of this stratum was from cattle or cattle-sized mammals. The remainder of the bones came mainly from sheep or goats and chickens, along with sizeable minority components of turkey and Gambel’s quail. The bone collection recovered from Stratum V/VI, about half the size of that from Stratum V, was dominated by just two species. Cattle made up nearly two-thirds of this sample, and chickens made up nearly the remaining third. Turkeys were the only other numerically significant component within the collection, but nonetheless were still distant from chickens in terms of numbers of identified specimens. As opposed to several of the overlying strata, Stratum VIa produced a collection consisting of about two-thirds bird bones, mainly turkey and chicken. Most of the remaining bones came from cattle and sheep/goats or similarly sized animals. Stratum VIb–e produced one of the larger collections of bone from any single layer, with more than 500 fragments recorded. Somewhat more than half the fragments came from domesticated mammals, principally cattle and sheep/goats. The other half of the collection was made up of avian species, almost exclusively chickens and turkeys. The large collection of bones from Stratum VIf–g was, somewhat surprisingly, dominated numerically by chicken and, to a lesser extent, turkey. This was in contrast to the usual pattern wherein most bones were from domesticated mammals. Instead, the distribution was around two-thirds birds vs. one-third mammals, the opposite of the pattern established by the feature’s upper layers. Stratum VIIa–b, the lowest stratum of Cesspit 3042 that contained faunal remains, displayed much the same pattern as the upper layers. The collection was dominated by both domesticated animals and birds, and each of those two broad taxonomic groups accounted for about half of the sample. Species mainly included cattle, sheep, turkeys, and chickens, and a few bones from both quail and pigs. Landscape Pit 79 and Refuse Deposit 623, similar to other unstratified features, together produced so few very-large and extra-large mammal bones that they are considered here together in terms of meat cuts (Table 54). The few identifiably cut bones were all from limb cuts, seemingly all from roast-type pieces of meat. The only bones recovered from Landscaping Pit 79 were of sheep/goat-sized mammals, numbering 24 in all. The bone content of Refuse Pit 623 was interesting because, unlike other refuse deposits, this one contained few mammal bones of any taxon. Instead, nearly all the bones were of birds. Most, however, were unidentifiable as to species; those that were identifiable to species came from chickens (see Table 54). Similar to other cesspits excavated in the Joint Courts Complex project area, Cesspit 3042 contained a relatively small collection of marine shell, including one worked-shell artifact, all recovered from Stratum IV (Table 55). The unworked shell collection, made up of food remains, consisted of an eastern oyster shell that 333 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest made up more than 95 percent of the weight of the total shellfish collection. The collection also included an oyster of unidentifiable taxon. The oysters may have been brought to Tucson either from the West or East Coast. In addition to unworked shellfish food remains, Stratum IV also contained a worked shell—a spirelopped bead made from a cone shell (Conus sp.). Similar beads have been recovered from prehistoric sites located throughout Arizona and the greater Southwest, Mexico, and California. As with the dama dwarf bead, the cone-shell spire-lopped bead may have been used by someone with affiliations other than solely Euroamerican or collected as a curio from a prehistoric context. Additionally, considering that a cone-shell spire-lopped bead was recovered from a prehistoric context in the Joint Courts Complex project area, Pit Structure 3370 (see Volume 1, Chapter 3), the bead from the cesspit may have been displaced from a prehistoric context. Macrobotanical analysis was conducted on samples from 7 of the 16 stratigraphic units in Cesspit 3042, resulting in the identification of eight plant taxa (see Table 6). Half of the identified plants (n = 4) were various wood species. The remains of two food plants, a landscaping shrub, and a native grass taxa were also identified. Wood, landscaping vegetation, and the native grass were identified in all 7 sampled strata, whereas fruit seeds (figs and raspberries) were only observed in 2 strata near the bottom of the cesspit. Block 254, Lot 7 Refuse Pits 518 and 531 and Cesspit 3040 yielded a total of 484 ceramic sherds. These sherds were made between 1880 and 1963, which encompassed the period of occupation between 1891 and 1937. Cesspit 3040 contained all but 23 of these sherds. Refuse Pit 518 and Ashpit 947 both contained a single unidentified ceramic fragment. Refuse Pit 531 had the remains of 2 bowls, 1 saucer, and 5 unidentified vessel forms. Cesspit 3040 yielded 460 ceramic sherds, which was the most of any feature in the project area and made up nearly 16 percent of all ceramics recovered during the project. Semivitreous (n = 167; MVC = 90) and nonvitreous (n = 131; MVC = 76) white-bodied earthenware sherds were the most-prevalent type of ceramic body in this feature. Stoneware (n = 63; MVC = 43), hardpaste porcelain (n = 54; MVC = 33), and vitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 40; MVC = 23) sherds were the other significant body types identified. About 40 percent of sherds were from unidentified vessel forms. The remains of about 50 plates were identified in this feature, along with 19 handled cups, 18 saucers, and 13 bowls. Sherds from other identified vessel forms included storage jars, pitchers, and a ewer. Like all artifact categories in Cesspit 3040, the ceramic artifacts were primarily concentrated in the uppermost stratigraphic units. Approximately 70 percent of all ceramic artifacts in this feature were located in Stratum II. Fifty-eight percent (n = 267) of ceramic sherds in this feature were recovered from that stratum and the density of ceramic artifacts in Stratum II was 3.78 per cubic foot (0.11/m³). The ceramics in the remaining strata were more dispersed and were found in much lower densities. The average density of ceramic artifacts in Strata III through XIVa–d was 1.52 per cubic foot (0.04/m³). No sherds were recovered from the lowest two strata, although very few artifacts of any category were recovered from the bottom of the cesspit. Aside from Stratum II, strata with higher-than-average densities of ceramic artifacts were Stratum VIII (2.13 per cubic foot or 0.06/m³), Stratum X (1.76 per cubic foot or 0.05/m³), Stratum XII (8.08 per cubic foot or 0.23/m³), and Stratum XIV (2.9 per cubic foot or 0.06/m³). Changing densities of ceramic artifacts were most likely the result of individual deposition events, when broken ceramic vessels were discarded along with other refuse within a short period. These deposition events were separated by periods when fewer artifacts of any category were discarded. Tableware vessel types and makers’ marks recovered from Cesspit 3040 were similar to the ceramic collections from other features across the project area. Marks on ceramic sherds indicated tableware vessels were primarily made in the United States and United Kingdom, although Japanese and French manufacturers were also identified, as illustrated in Table 56. In this feature, makers’ marks were more recent in uppermost strata and were older in lower strata. Decorative motifs in this feature were mostly relief-molded, but decals and enameling were also commonly added to the relief-molded decorations. Overall, ceramics in this feature were similar to the collections recovered from neighboring households. Interestingly, Cesspit 3040 also contained a comparatively large number of stoneware sherds from storage jars (n = 41). These sherds had salt- or slip-glazed interiors and exteriors and represented utilitarian storage vessels that were commonly used during the late nineteenth century. Stoneware fragments were recovered in nearly every stratigraphic unit, which indicates these vessels were employed as long as people resided on this lot. Refuse Pits 518 and 531 and Cesspit 3040 yielded about 27 percent of all nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts (n = 188; MVC = 85) from the postcemetery contexts in the project area. Nearly all of these 334 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 artifacts (n = 185) were recovered from Cesspit 3040. Refuse Pit 531 had a shard from the handle of a glass pitcher, and Refuse Pit 518 yielded shards from a glass tumbler with etched banding and a pressed-glass goblet. Nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts in Cesspit 3040 were identified in 9 of the feature’s 13 stratigraphic units. Although tableware and culinary artifacts were most concentrated in Strata II (n = 51) and XII (n = 56), they were also prominent in Strata XII through XIV, which yielded 54 percent of tablewares in this feature. This collection was overwhelmingly dominated by glass shards (n = 152), which made up about 82 percent of nonceramic tablewares. Metal culinary artifacts (n = 34) were only 18 percent and no bone or stone artifacts were identified. With 149 shards from at least 54 vessels, glass artifacts made up the largest portion of the nonceramic tableware category in Cesspit 3040, which also had the greatest number of glass-tableware vessels in the project area. Drinking glasses (MVC = 26) were mostly tumblers, 7 of which were jelly-jar glasses. Four of the tumblers were made by Hazel Atlas between 1920 and 1964 (Toulouse 1971:239). Another tumbler was made by the Crystal Glass Company of Los Angeles between 1921 and 1928 (Toulouse 1971:108). Only 4 tumblers had molded fluting or ribbing as decoration. Stemware in this feature included a molded goblet, a wine glass, and a small cordial glass. Glass dishes or bowls (MVC = 6) were primarily molded with diamond or floral motifs or geometric designs, although a shard from a painted decorative bowl was also identified. Shards from at least 3 glass pitchers or jugs were also recovered, 1 of which was decorated with scalloped and floral-motif relief molding. Shards from at least 15 miscellaneous vessels were recovered, some of which had similar relief molding and decorative patterns as other identified vessels in this feature and probably belonged to a larger tableware set. Metal culinary artifacts in Cesspit 3040 (n = 34) represented the remains of both food preparation and consumption utensils. Fragments of gray enamelware from at least 4 pots or pans, 1 pan, 1 pot lid, and 1 handle were recovered from throughout this feature. Other metal lids (MVC = 3) included the top to a spice shaker and a cast-iron pot lid. Other handles (MVC = 7) were from 2 cooking vessels, 2 silverware utensils, and 3 ladles. Five spoons and a fork without its tines were also recovered. A total of 144 Native American ceramic sherds were recovered from Cesspits 3040 and 3042, and Refuse Deposit 3340 on Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 (see Appendix N). Eighty-eight percent of these fragments (n = 127) were Papago Red sherds. About 60 percent (n = 86) of all Native American ceramics on this property were fragments of ollas. Refuse Pit 531, Fireplace 947, and Cesspit 3040 held a minimum of 200 glass and metal food/beverage containers, including 74 bottles, 57 jars, and 69 cans. The number of bottle/jar closures recovered was 139. The bulk of the food/beverage containers and closures from this lot were recovered from Cesspit 3040 (94 percent, n = 187). Twenty-one percent (n = 27) of the food/beverage glass with identifiable technology were machine-made. Shards and fragments of at least four bottles, six cans, and three bottle/jar closures were recovered from Refuse Pit 531. None of the bottles had identified contents; at least one of the bottles was made by the Illinois Glass Co. between 1873 and 1929. One crown cap was collected and one lid liner provided evidence of home canning activity. Most of the can contents remain unidentified. The bulk of cans in this feature were sanitary cans, although hole-in-cap and hole-in-top types were also present. Food and beverage containers from this feature that were temporally diagnostic indicated potential deposition from as early as the first residential activity on the lot to 1930. Fireplace 947 yielded shards and fragments of a canning jar, at least two cans, and a crown-cap bottle closure. The can contents remain unidentified; sanitary and hole-in-top cans were both present. Food and beverage containers from this feature that were temporally diagnostic indicated deposition after 1895. Cesspit 3040 yielded complete and fragmented bottles, jars, and cans, and bottle/jar closures. Bottles were mostly concentrated in the middle to lower stratigraphic layers of the feature. Most of the bottle contents remain unidentified, and at least 6 unidentified beverage bottles were found. Of note were a Mexican beverage bottle made by Cartel Vidriera Monterey as early as 1909 (Lockhart 2000; Whitten 2009) and a Welch’s grape juice bottle made after 1869 (Zumwalt 1980:421). Another Welch’s grape juice bottle from this feature, not included in this section’s MVC calculation, was repurposed for medicinal use (see below for further discussion). Evidence of at least 6 soft-drink bottles was recovered, including at least 2 Nehi soda bottles made between 1924 and 1955 (The Museum of Beverage Containers and Advertising 2009); a ginger-ale bottle embossed “VESS DRY//VESS DRY/6 1/2 FLD OZS//REGISTERED” that was introduced in 1927 (Petretti 1999:407); and a bottle marked “Three Rivers” that was produced from 1925 to 1937 (Toulouse 1971:494, 495). At least 2 milk bottles were found; 1 was embossed “HALF PINT/MODERN/ DAIRY/WASH AND RETURN” and had a valve mark indicating manufacture between the 1930s and 1940s (Sutton and Arkush 2002:182). Tucson city directories indicate that Modern Dairy was operating locally 335 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest as early as 1917 and as late as 1933. The Hazel Atlas Company made an olive-oil bottle between 1920 and 1964 (Toulouse 1971:239). At least 7 condiment bottles were also found. One was a Heinz Worcestershire sauce bottle with a stopper (Figure 104), one was a Curtice Bros. ketchup bottle, and another was a Best Foods bottle. Bottle closures recovered from the feature included 3 stoppers—two Lea & Perrins’ and one Heinz—at least 72 crown caps, 2 corks, and 7 screw caps. Jars were found in only 6 (upper to mid) stratigraphic layers. At least 8 canning jars were identified, made by Kerr and Ball. Given the number of colorless jars in this feature, additional home-canning jars and commercially canned goods were probably also represented. At least 15 commercially packed food and preserve jars were found; the remainder was unidentified. One of the jars held a condiment from Best Foods. Jar closures included a continuously threaded glass cap embossed “SIMPLEX GLASS CAP/FOR MASON JARS/PATD/DEC,5,05” (Toulouse 1969:449); 5 milkglass and 1 metal lid liners, 1 metal screw cap, and a zinc screw cap. Bottle/jar closures were observed in 10 of the 13 stratigraphic layers, mostly in the upper and middle layers. Similarly, cans were mostly found in the upper and middle layers. Sanitary, hole-in-top, and hole-in-cap cans were recovered. Most can contents remain unidentified, although at least 3 food, 4 milk, 14 canned-heat (many of the Sterno brand), 1 meat, and 1 coffee can were observed. Four archaeological features excavated on Block 254, Lot 7, yielded a total of 156 alcohol bottles and shards. The features included two refuse pits (Features 518 and 531), a fireplace (Feature 947), and a cesspit (Feature 3042). About 97 percent (n = 151) of the alcohol glass was recovered from the cesspit. Four shards from beer bottles (MVC = 3) were recovered from the refuse pits, and a wine or champagne bottle shard was collected from the fireplace. Throughout the cesspit, 50 percent (n = 76; MVC = 41) of all alcohol bottles once held beer. Twenty-two percent (n = 33; MVC = 18) were distilled-spirits bottle shards and 28 percent (n = 42; MVC = 22) were wine or champagne bottle shards. Alcohol-bottle fragments were recovered from 9 of the 13 stratigraphic units of the cesspit. Alcohol-related artifact frequencies in Cesspit 3040 indicate that beverage preferences changed through time, and median manufacture dates suggest these layers were deposited in three periods. Bottle fragments were concentrated in four strata (Strata II, V, X, and XI) that were separated by layers with few bottle fragments, particularly Strata IV, VI, VII, and IX, which had no alcohol glass. Although the average density of alcohol glass for this feature was 0.74 per cubic foot (0.02/m³), densities were higher than average in these four strata. Stratum II contained 38 percent (n = 58; MVC = 32) of alcohol-glass shards in this feature at a density of 0.82 per cubic foot (0.02/m³) for alcohol shards. Alcohol glass in Stratum II was 67 percent (n = 39) of the shards from at least 17 beer bottles, 17 percent (n = 10; MVC = 7) wine or champagne, and 16 percent (n = 9; MVC = 8) spirits. Fragments of 3 beer and spirits bottles in Stratum II dated between 1915 and 1954 with a median manufacture date of 1930.5 on bottles with closed-end dates (Toulouse 1971:264, 403, 415). With an artifact density of 1.07 per cubic foot (0.03/ m³), Stratum V contained 17 percent (n = 25) of alcohol-bottle glass in this feature and represented 9 vessels. Sixty-four percent (n = 16) of shards in this stratum were from 3 spirits bottles, 20 percent (n = 5) were from 2 wine or champagne bottle fragments, and 16 percent (n = 4) were from 4 beer bottles. Two beer bottles in this stratum had a median manufacture date of 1910.5 (Toulouse 1971:30–33). When combined, Strata X and XI contained 48 shards from 28 alcohol bottles, which was 32 percent of the alcohol-bottle remains in this feature. The density of Strata X and XI together was 2.01 per cubic foot (0.06/m³). These two strata contained 58 percent (n = 28; MVC = 15) beer bottle remains and 38 percent (n = 17; MVC = 10) wine or champagne bottles. Only 6 percent (n = 3) of Strata X and XI were from 3 distilled-spirits bottles, including a whiskey bottle purveyed by distributors Neil and O’Keefe (Figure 105), who were possibly from Tucson or Tubac. Ten bottles with closed-end dates in Strata X and XI had a median manufacture date of 1906.7 (Toulouse 1971:231, 461, 536; Whitten 2009; Wilson and Wilson 1968:137). Based on these frequencies and dated strata, beer was the preferred beverage in this household around 1906. Sometime around 1910, distilled spirits became the preferred beverage, but by 1930, beer was the favorite again. Cesspit 3040, Refuse Pit 531, and Fireplace 6088 yielded complete and fragmented clothing fasteners. All of the clothing fabric and most of the clothing fasteners (undecorated buttons) were recovered from Cesspit 3040. Men’s, women’s, and babies’ clothing was indicated. Cesspit 3040 contained the widest variety of clothing fasteners in this lot. Eight of the 13 stratigraphic layers in this feature yielded buttons. Button types, primarily recovered from upper stratigraphic layers, included sew-through, uniform, unidentified shanks, fly buttons, and cross-bar/D-hole examples. Sizes indicated use on a variety of garments ranging from lingerie or babies’ clothing to coats. Railroad uniform buttons were also recovered, including a 38-line coat button stamped “ERIE” on the front (Erie Railroad 1895–1960) and “WATERBURY BUTTON CO” on the back, and a 23-line uniform shank coat-button stamped “LIRR” on front (Long Island Railroad) dating approximately from 1900 to 1915 (Trains are Fun 2009) (Figures 106 and 107). At least two fly buttons 336 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 recovered were from Levi Strauss–made denim pants or overalls (Figure 108). At least one large safety pin was present. One small, square ferrous-metal buckle and one large celluloid-plastic cinch buckle were in Stratum II. Snaps were mostly recovered from the middle to lower stratigraphic layers, and pants rivets were found in lower stratigraphic layers. Six of the 13 stratigraphic layers in Cesspit 3040 provided clothing fabric, including cotton, silk, synthetic, leather, wool, and an unknown type. Fragments of finely woven, black cotton stockings were recovered in Strata II, XII, XIII, and XIVa–d. Brown taffeta fragments suggesting a dress and a black silk ribbon were recovered. Sheer tan-colored rayon stocking (hose) fragments were also identified. Leather fragments, recovered in the upper and lower stratigraphic layers, represented at least one belt and the bill to a cap. Wool was found in upper stratigraphic layers (Strata II and V). Refuse Pit 531 yielded sew-through and cloth-covered buttons. Sizes suggested use on shirts, vests, and pants. A 12-line, sew-through button from shell, recovered from Fireplace 6088, may have been used on lingerie, dress shirts, and/or babies’ clothing. Two features in Block 254, Lot 7, produced over 300 fragments of footwear representing a minimum of four shoes. Refuse Pit 531 contained a dozen fragments of leather welts and rubber heels from at least one shoe of unknown side, size, or color. Just under 150 fragments of leather shoe were excavated from Cesspit 3040 and represented at least three leather shoes—one unknown and one woman or child’s shoe from Stratum II, and one woman’s shoe with a stacked-leather heel from Stratum XI. Some of the fragments retained their color, with black leather somewhat more common than brown, but color could not be discerned for most of the fragments. Stratum II produced part of a leather Goodyear welt, dating that stratum to ca. 1912 or later (Berge 1980:275–278). Refuse Pit 531 and Cesspit 3040 contained numerous personal artifacts. Most of the personal artifacts were recovered from Cesspit 3040, and beauty and cosmetic items were the most-prevalent personal items. Refuse Pit 531 contained three personal artifacts. A whole bottle retained a paper label fragment reading “SO[F]TENS, PRESERVES and . . . appearan[ce]”. One brown unidentified-plastic dressing comb and a black unidentified-plastic decorative hairpin were also recovered from this feature. Cesspit 3040 produced numerous personal artifacts. Red rubber tubing and one rectal and two vaginal fountain-syringe nozzles would have been used with hot-water bottles for enemas and douching. Fountain syringe nozzles advertised in the 1906 Sears catalog (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:845) resembled those in the sample from this pit. Glass shards represented a bottle of dandruff shampoo embossed “NEWBROS/HERPICIDE/ KILLS THE/DANDRUFF GERM”. Newbros was in production between 1890 and 1948 (Fike 2006:124). A safety razor was engraved with “GEM/Brooklyn New York/USA” and “GEM/ PATD 1912”. GEM was first introduced on the American market in 1898, but by 1919, the razor was sold under the name American Safety Razor Company (Personna American Safety Razor Company 2009). A steel first-aid tape spindle, a round zinc condom container, a ferrous ointment tube, black unidentified-plastic fragments of at least two dressing combs, and bone toothbrush fragments were also found. Two brass lipstick tubes recovered from Stratum II were engraved with “ganna/walska/paris” on the base and an upside-down triangle with a “W” on the top. Ganna Walska was an internationally known socialite who had a cosmetic line and a beauty shop in Paris and a perfume shop in New York. According to the New York Times (13 April 1927:1; 10 June 1931:26), Walska opened her Paris shop in 1927 and closed it in 1931. It is not known if her cosmetic line continued after the close of the shop; assuming that the cosmetics were marketed during and perhaps after the time the shop operated, the lipsticks support the interpretation (above) that Strata II–VII were deposited about the time the house was razed, in 1937. Original contents from personal bottles included at least two perfume, three lotion, three shoe polish, and two unidentified cosmetic preparations. Two lotion bottles were made by the Owl Drug Co. between 1892 and 1933 (Fike 2006:92), and one was an A. S. Hinds bottle dating between 1890 and 1930 (Toulouse 1971:54). Both Owl Drug lotion bottles retained partial paper labels; by combining the readable portions of both, we know that the labels read in part “[H]AND LOTION/SPECIAL/[. . . RRILL]A. J. McNEIL./[TH]E OWL DRUG CO/[CONG]RESS & 6[TH] W TUCSON ARIZ.” The Owl Drug Store began in 1892 in San Francisco; by 1906, the company had opened stores throughout California. By the time the Owl chain was acquired by the Rexall Drug Co. in the 1930s, there were stores in a dozen states across the nation (Jensen 1968:3–4). Owl Drug bottles depicted an embossed, side-facing owl until sometime during the first decade of the twentieth century, when the embossment was changed to show a forward-facing owl (Jensen 1968:3). Stratum II of this feature contained one of each, suggesting that they were purchased from the local druggist during the period surrounding the logo transition and deposited by one of the rental households after the turn of the twentieth century. One shoe-polish bottle retained a paper label fragment reading “SHIN[OLA]/ BLA[CK]/SHOE P[OLI]S[H]/CLEANS, DE[ODER]IZ[ES]/. . . AO . . . SHOES”. Hazel Atlas made the 337 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest bottle for Shinola shoe polish between 1929 and 1964 (Toulouse 1971:239). According to the U.S. Patent and Trademark office’s Trademark Applications and Registration Retrieval (TARR) Web site, Shinola was first introduced in 1900 and was considered to be an expired patent as of 1992. An additional shoe-polish bottle embossed “[WHITTEM]ORE/[BOST]ON[/U.S.A.]” and a minimum of two milk-glass cosmetic jars were also recovered. Several pieces of jewelry were recovered from Cesspit 3040. Three jewelry beads were red, white, and light-green glass. A brooch had colorless-glass “jewels” and a metal brooch/lapel pin fragment resembled a shamrock and a flower with a garnet-colored paste jewel. A cufflink was recovered from this feature; similar examples were advertised in the 1906 Sears catalog at prices ranging from 7 to 22 cents (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:91). A length of chain may have been used for vests, a pocket watch, and/or a fob. Men’s chains were advertised in 1906 at prices ranging from 9 cents to $1.48 and $3.80 (Sears, Roebuck, and Company 1906:56, 95). Other personal artifacts from this feature included a complete pocket watch, an eyeglass lens, two wooden-handled pocket knives, brass purse closure fragments, an unidentified-plastic hair clip fragment, and assorted brass fragments from an umbrella. Refuse Pit 531 and Cesspit 3040 yielded a total of 103 medicine-related artifacts. Ninety-seven percent (n = 100; MVC = 56) of these artifacts were recovered from Cesspit 3040. Medicine-related artifacts in Refuse Pit 531 were from completely machine-made bottles (MVC = 3), including 1 made by the Illinois Pacific Glass Company (1902–1930) (Toulouse 1971:268). The density of medicinal-glass artifacts in Refuse Pit 531 was low at 0.19 per cubic foot (0.005/m³). Medicine-related artifacts in Cesspit 3040 were recovered from 9 of the 13 stratigraphic levels. Ninety-seven percent (n = 97; MVC = 54) of medicinal glass in this feature was from bottles or jars and the remaining 3 percent (n = 3; MVC = 2) from cylindrical-glass tubing that may have been from ampoules or test tubes. The overall artifact density of this feature was 0.5 per cubic foot (0.014/m³). Medicine-related artifacts were concentrated in three parts of the feature, which were separated by strata with low densities of medicinal glass. Stratum II had the largest percentage of artifacts (43 percent, n = 43; MVC = 28), but artifact density was only slightly higher than average at 0.61 per cubic foot (0.017/m³). Stratum V had an artifact density of 0.77 per cubic foot (0.022/m³) and yielded 18 percent (n = 18; MVC= 5) of artifacts. Stratum XII had the highest density of artifacts (1.81 per cubic foot or 0.051/ m³) and contained 13 percent (n = 13; MVC = 9) of artifacts. Twelve percent (n = 12; MVC = 5) of medicinerelated artifacts in this feature were recovered from Stratum XIII, which had an artifact density of 1.09 per cubic foot (0.03/m³). When combined, Strata XII and XIII contained 26 percent (n = 26; MVC = 14) of artifacts, with a density of 1.37 per cubic foot (0.039/m³). Medicinal products in Cesspit 3040 were mostly from proprietary medicines and were found throughout the feature. A total of 27 bottles had either glass or medicine manufacturers’ information, which led to the identification of 19 medicines, pharmaceutical companies, or compounding pharmacists. Identified medicine bottles are summarized in Table 57. Most of these medicines were designed to treat internal ailments, although a bottle that contained a rub for external pain was also recovered from this feature. The remains of medicine bottles used or made for professional pharmacists were recovered from Strata V and X. A bottle made for the pharmacist E. R. Clarke was collected from Stratum V; the location of this pharmacy is unknown. A complete Welch’s grape juice bottle with a partial label of an unidentified pharmacist on North Stone Avenue was excavated from Stratum X. The label indicated the bottle was reused to contain castor oil, and instructions on this label stated the dose for an adult was 1–2 tablespoons. The label also indicated the medicine could be made more palatable by mixing it with an unknown additive. Welch’s grape juice was made as early as 1869 and continues to be produced today (Zumwalt 1980:421). Three Vicks Vaporub jars (1898–present) were also recovered from Stratum II of Cesspit 3040. Vicks is an effective respiratory medicine that is used to treat constriction within the respiratory system (Hinds-Brown 2002:2). This medicine was first compounded by Lundsford Richardson, a pharmacist from Greensboro, North Carolina, and it quickly became a household staple. By 1919, Vaporub was available in every state (Hinds-Brown 2002). Menthol, the active ingredient in Vaporub, is an aromatic volatile oil commonly found in peppermint and other members of the Mentha species and is particularly aromatic. Menthol is a topical antipuritic and can be used on the skin as a counterirritant, an antiseptic, and a stimulant (Tyler et al. 1988:113–117). The menthol vapors, which are activated in Vaporub after being heated by body temperature, open the respiratory system and alleviate constriction (Hinds-Brown 2002:2). Two features in Block 254, Lot 7, produced 20 artifacts relating to recreation. Refuse Pit 531 contained a small parian baby doll’s head with hand-painted features, including black eyes, red lips, molded-blonde hair, and pink cheeks. Also recovered were part of a green glass marble, one white and one brown ceramic marble, and one possible golf ball. Stratum II of Cesspit 3040 contained two fragments of golf ball; three 338 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 tan-yellow stoneware marbles; one parian doll fragment; and an undecorated doll leg and foot made of undecorated, refined, white-bodied earthenware. The bare foot was flat, indicating that this doll could stand unsupported, and it likely was a one-piece molded type known as a Frozen Charlotte. These dolls were produced from the 1850s into the 1900s by various German firms and were made in parian and glazed versions ranging in height from less than 1 inch to over 18 inches (Foulke 2003:84, 315). Fragments of a tiny toy parian gate (perhaps from a doll play set) were recovered, as well as two metal toy wheels. Stratum III held one pale-blue, hard-rubber poker chip (Figure 109) with five-pointed stars on each side. Stratum VII contained part of a black, hard-rubber game piece (possibly a checker piece), and Stratum VIII held a metal toy wheel, one sherd from a porcelain toy saucer, and part of the face of a parian doll. Twelve smoking-related artifacts were recovered from Lot 7 of Block 254. A complete amber-glass snuff bottle with a suction scar (indicating that the bottle was produced after 1905) was excavated from Stratum I of Fireplace 947. Stratum II of Cesspit 3040 produced fragments from five pocket-tobacco tins fragments, one with part of a Prince Albert Tobacco label, and four fragments of a black and red Bakelite-and-wood smoking pipe. Prince Albert Tobacco was sold in cans beginning ca. 1908 (Rock 1987:61–63). Stratum XII of the same feature produced two partial ceramic spittoons—both decorated with gilded lines around the rim and shoulder and decals of pink and yellow flowers and green or brown leaves—one of which had a Homer Laughlin maker’s mark dating between 1869 and 1900 (Lehner 1988:247–248). Hundreds of communication-related artifacts were recovered from three features in Block 254, Lot 7. Refuse Pit 518 produced four shards from an aqua-glass ink bottle, and Refuse Pit 531 yielded three pencil fragments and three nonferrous pen nibs, one of which was inscribed with the words “CAPITAL/SPECIAL”. No information could be found on this inscription; likely it represents the name a company assigned to this particular nib model. Stratum II of Cesspit 3040 contained a colorless-glass ink bottle with “SHEAFFERS/ SKRIP” on the base, a cobalt-blue ink bottle with label fragments reading “DAVIDS’/QUICK DR[YING] . . . /STA[MP PAD I]NK”, and five pencil fragments. Sheaffer’s Skrip brand ink was marketed first in 1922 (Sheaffer Pen 2006), and the colorless bottle had a Hazel Atlas maker’s mark dating from the 1920s to 1964 (Toulouse 1971:239). Davids’ Ink Company was in operation from the early nineteenth century until at least 1945 (Faulkner and Faulkner 2007:29–30). Numerous paper fragments were recovered from Stratum II, and Strata III, V, and VIII also yielded paper fragments. Included were newspapers (Arizona Daily Star, El Paso Herald, Los Angeles Examiner, Los Angeles Daily Times, Tucson Citizen, San Francisco Chronicle), the American Sunday Magazine, and the Ladies’ Home Journal. Legible portions of the printed matter represented advertisements; want ads; comic strips; local, national, and international news; stories; fashion; and real-estate listings. Almost all of the newspaper fragments that retained dates were from 1911. Pencil fragments were found in Strata VIII (n = 3) and XIII (n = 2); and a single typesetter block was recovered from Stratum VIII. It appears to have been for a business card that read in part, “G. M. MOON”. Sherds from a ceramic Carter’s Ink bottle were excavated from Strata XI (n = 3) and XII (n = 6). Excavations at Block 254, Lot 7, resulted in the recovery of 20 firearms-related weaponry artifacts from two features: Refuse Pit 531 and Cesspit 3040. These artifacts included a lead bullet, 17 cartridges and casings, and 2 shotgun shells. Twenty-five percent (n = 5) of these artifacts were collected from Refuse Pit 531 and 75 percent (n = 15) came from Cesspit 3040. All weaponry artifacts in Refuse Pit 531 were cartridges for a handgun and a small-bore rifle. A cartridge for the .38 Smith and Wesson in this feature was made by the Remington Arms Company after its 1911 purchase of Union Metallic Cartridge (Goodman 1998:n.p.). The .38 Smith and Wesson revolver has been a popular weapon since its introduction in 1877 (Barnes 2006:301). The remaining cartridges were for .22 short and long rounds. One of these cartridges was made by Winchester Repeating Arms. The 15 weaponry artifacts in Cesspit 3040 included a lead bullet, 2 shotgun shells and 12 cartridges and casings. The bullet was a .22 caliber and was deformed from firing. Both of the shotgun shells had illegible head stamps; one of these shells was a corroded 12-gauge. Cartridge casings included .22 short (n = 5) and .22 long (n =3) cartridges made by Winchester Repeating Arms. A .30 Army cartridge made by Winchester Repeating Arms was also recovered. The .30 Army was originally made for the Krag-Jorgenson 30-40 rifle that was used by the U.S. military between 1892 and 1903. The 30-40 KragJorgenson was replaced by the 30-03 in 1903, which was a predecessor of the 30-06 (Barnes 2006:252). The .38 long cartridge found in this feature was made for both handguns and rifles. Originally designed for the Remington single-shot rifle in 1867, this cartridge was used by the military until 1875. The .38 long continued to be used in the United States, outside of the military, until around World War I when guns were no longer produced for it (Barnes 2006:483). Dozens of commerce-related artifacts were recovered from Cesspit 3040. A heavily oxidized fragment of a token with “INTERURBAN’ / [design of a building or train/trolley] / SPECIAL” was excavated from 339 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Stratum II. The same level produced at least 69 fragments of paper receipts. All of the receipts appeared to document purchases made by Mrs. E. Kelley (on behalf of her husband, Mose Kelley) at the Fulton Market, New York Store, Pacific Grocery, Washington Market, Pagoda Tea and Coffee Company, and other stores in Tucson during the months of May and June, 1911. Deposits in Stratum II must have postdated the last purchase, which was made at Pacific Grocery on June 28 of that year. Finally, Stratum VIII of the same feature produced half of a copper shipping container used to transport watches. Approximately 57 percent of transportation-related artifacts (n = 119) from postcemetery contexts in the project area were recovered from Block 254, Lot 7. Eighty-five percent (n = 100) of transportation artifacts on this block were identified in Cesspit 3040. Refuse Pit 531 contained 3 fragments from a harness buckle and 16 fragments from an unreadable license plate. Cesspit 3040 yielded a total of 100 transportation-related artifacts; 90 were recovered from Stratum II, which was the uppermost stratigraphic unit and was associated with sediments used to fill the cesspit. Transportation artifacts were overwhelmingly for automobiles and the only animal-powered transportation items were a D-ring from horse tack in Stratum II and fragments of horseshoes (n = 2) recovered from Strata III and VIII. Automobile parts in this feature (n = 97) were primarily recovered from Stratum II, which yielded 89 transportation artifacts. Transportation artifacts in this stratum included 26 rubber items such as inner tube and tire fragments (n = 17), weather stripping (n = 2), and fragments of fan belts (n = 6). Metal transportation items (n = 64) in Stratum II included license plate fragments (n = 2); spark plugs and spark plug fragments (n = 3); and mechanical, frame, and body parts (n = 57), including suspension springs, a fragment from a driveshaft with gears, oil breather caps, and a sun-visor bracket. Automobile parts in Stratum V included a wooden-spoked car wheel and Pitman arms for steering, and Stratum VIII contained a car tire fragment. This lot became the site of Hackett Whiting Motor Company in 1947, which may explain the preponderance of automobile-related artifacts in the upper strata of Cesspit 3040. Archaeological investigations of four features on Block 254, Lot 7 (Fireplaces 947 and 6088, Refuse Pit 531, and Cesspit 3040) resulted in the recovery of over 6,600 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts. Approximately 98 percent (n = 6,524) of the construction and hardware artifacts on this lot were recovered from Cesspit 3040. Refuse Pit 531 contained 109 construction artifacts that included wire nails and nail fragments (n = 78), window glass (n = 5), electrical wire fragments (n = 12), a zinc battery core, paint can fragments with an internal-friction lid and brown paint residue inside (n = 2), two brackets, a white porcelain doorknob, and a brick fragment. This feature also contained a large, but uncounted, number of brittle fragments from the exterior of a dry-cell battery. Milled lumber was present in this feature, and it was weighed but not counted. Fireplace 947 yielded 18 wire-nail fragments, 3 paint can lid fragments, 3 dry-cell battery fragments, a piece of metal tubing, and an electrical wire fragment. Cesspit 3040 contained 36 percent of all recovered construction and hardware artifacts from postcemetery contexts in the project area. Hardware artifacts were recovered from 11 of its 13 strata. The overall density of construction artifacts was 32.56 per cubic foot (0.91/m³), but these artifacts were concentrated in the upper strata. Stratum II was the uppermost stratigraphic unit and contained 75 percent (n = 5,010) of construction artifacts. By volume, this stratum contained 34.5 percent of excavated sediments and had an artifact density of 71 per cubic foot (1.99/m³). The upper two-thirds of this feature, Strata II through VIII, contained 98 percent of the construction artifacts, with a combined artifact density of 47.0 per cubic foot (1.32/m³). Construction artifacts were concentrated in Strata II (n = 5,010), V (n = 657), and VIII (n = 437), suggesting periods of mass deposition of sediments with construction artifacts. By contrast, the lower one-third of this feature, Strata IX through XVI, had fewer construction artifacts and a lower density of artifacts than overlying sediments. These stratigraphic units only contained 126 artifacts and had an artifact density of 1.8 per cubic foot (0.05/m³). The lowest three stratigraphic units, Strata XIV–XVI, yielded no construction artifacts. The density of construction artifacts in the upper portion of this feature, especially in Stratum II, was characteristic of fill with architectural debris that was used to level the cesspit when it was no longer needed. Cesspit 3040 also had the greatest diversity of construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts of any feature in the project area. The construction and hardware collection was dominated by nails and nail fragments (n = 3,239) and window glass (n = 814), which made up 62 percent of artifacts in this feature. Identified common wire nails measured 2d (n = 10), 3d (n = 6), 4d (n = 37), 5d (n = 5), 6d (n = 10), 7d (n = 6), 8d (n = 13), 9d (n = 1), 10d (n = 1), 20d (n = 1), and 50d (n = 1). Despite the large quantity of nails recovered, only 10 were cut nails and nail fragments. Barbed and fencing wire fragments (n = 422) made up another large portion of the construction-materials and hardware-related artifact group. The only identified barbed-wire style was Glidden’s “Winner” pattern, which was patented in 1874 and remains in production today as one of the most-common barbed wires in the United States (Clifton 1970). Other significant portions 340 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 of the construction and hardware artifacts collection were metal plumbing pipe (n = 237), milled-lumber fragments (n = 153), screen mesh (n = 59), tar-paper roofing material (n = 48), and screws (n = 36). Linoleum fragments (n = 52) were decorated with blue, gray, beige, and white curvilinear motifs. Paint and paint can fragments (n = 337) had external and internal friction closures. Paint chips and residue on can fragments were mostly white, but blue, orange, green, and red paints were also observed. Miscellaneous artifacts consisted of unidentified metal and unidentified hardware (n = 407), grommets (n = 38), hinges (n = 11), and miscellaneous straps, bars, or rods (n = 213). Ceramic hardware included 2 white ceramic flooring-tile fragments. Identified tools included a single-bit axe head, a broken metal funnel, a paint scraper, a paint stirring stick encrusted with black paint, 2 wrenches, the remains of a rake, and 5 hacksaw blades. A total of 270 electricity- or lighting-related artifacts was recovered from excavations in Block 254, Lot 7. These included electrical wire fragments (n = 85), miscellaneous electrical components (n = 28), drycell battery fragments (n = 13), ceramic utility insulators (n = 14), and fuses (n = 11). One of these insulators had a patent date of 1920 and another was most likely made by the General Electric Company (1892–1897) (Gish 2009a). Feature 947, a fireplace, produced a brass battery post, and Refuse Pit 531 produced several dry-cell battery parts and 3 shards of colorless lamp glass, including at least 1 with a ground or cut design of two horizontal bands on either side of a “square wave” geometric pattern. The remaining artifacts all came from Cesspit 3040. Stratum II produced 6 battery fragments, 27 electrical components, 11 fuse fragments, 1 complete and 7 partial ceramic insulators, and 121 lamp and lightbulb parts. Battery fragments represented both dry-cell and lead-acid (car) batteries, the latter of which likely were produced by the National Battery Company sometime after 1898. Lead-acid batteries are used most frequently in cars. One of the insulators was marked “PAT FEB 8 H 1920 [“w” in a “V”]”, indicating it was manufactured after 1920. A complete fuse was labeled “ECONOMY FUSE & MFG. CO./CLEARSITE”, “CHICAGO, USA/125V REG. US. PAT. OFF. 125V”, “PAT’D/AUG 15, 1916 FEB . . . 7, 1917/JUNE 22, 1920 OTHERS PENDING”, likewise postdating 1920. One of the electrical components, a Bakelite pendant switch part, was marked “UND. LAB. INSP.”, and a Bakelite plug housing was marked “BRYANT”, suggesting that it was produced by the Bryant Electric Company sometime after 1888 (Hubbell Incorporated 2009). Several lamp shards appeared to be frosted, and one colorless-glass lamp shard represented part of a machine-molded chimney crown. Metal lamp fragments included parts of a wick holder, an oil-lamp burner, a lamp base, a lantern cap, and lead or pewter tubing. Stratum V of Feature 3040 contained 3 ceramic insulator fragments and 28 lightbulb and lantern parts, the latter of which include part of a wick holder and a complete electric shade holder. Stratum VIII contained 1 metal electrical component, 1 ceramic insulator fragment, 7 lightbulb fragments, and 1 metal feed tube from a gas lamp. Stratum IX produced 5 shards of multicolored lamp glass, and Stratum X contained a single dry-cell battery part and 34 shards of a glass desk-lamp shade (white interior, dark green exterior). Stratum XI produced 2 dry-cell battery parts and 1 whole ceramic-insulator marked “G.E.C. 9325”, likely produced by the General Electric Company sometime after 1892 (Gish 2009b). A whole lightbulb and a dozen shards of chimney glass were recovered from Stratum XII. Half of the chimney-glass shards were opaque with painted floral decoration, and the others were colorless and decorated with either a scalloped trim or a ground, geometric border along the rim. Finally, Stratum XIII produced 1 dry-cell battery fragment and 112 lamp-glass shards. Of the latter, 7 were multicolored, another 7 were opaque white milk-glass with red-painted decoration, 5 were colorless and decorated with etched leaves and flowers about 1 inch below the rim, and 1 colorless rim shard had a pressed-bead design along the edge. Refuse Pit 531, Fireplace 947, and Cesspit 3040 from Block 254, Lot 7, produced household artifacts consisting of appliance parts, bottles, other containers, hardware, kitchen items, and miscellaneous household artifacts. Refuse Pit 531 contained coal and a flat, nonferrous strip of metal with rivets identified as a desk or chest lid hinge slide. Fireplace 947 contained a metal spring from a clothespin, one sherd representing a semivitreous white-bodied chamber pot, and one terracotta flower pot. Cesspit 3040 contained numerous appliance parts, bottles, other containers, hardware, kitchen items, and other household artifacts. The many stove parts included a complete stovepipe damper, the front door of a cast-iron pot-bellied stove, fragments of a mica window or windows, stovepipe fragments (including some lined with asbestos), three fragments of burners, four fragments of grills, an oil/gas stove adjustment valve, seven fragments of burner covers, a pilot-light connection, a perforated wick raiser and an asbestos-lined tapered stovepipe from an oil-burning stove, and an oil or propane burner assembly. Two sad irons were recovered, one of which was gas-heated, known as a Dover sad iron (Figure 110), and the other was a cast-iron (Geneva) sad iron. The Dover dates to the early twentieth century and was described thus: “a number of models [were] made by the same manufacturer for various types of home laundry use. The 62 Model is made in two parts, the top of which clamps and unclamps with a slide over a central bolt to lock the top to the body of the iron. The 341 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest cast steel plate is set in a recess. The iron is pointed at each end. Length is 61/2 inches; width is 31/2 inches; weight 5 pounds” (Bowlin 1965:26–27). The Geneva sad iron would have had a steel handle with metal supports. “It was customary for housewives to use a soft cloth pad to handle these irons when in use, to protect their hands” (Bowlin 1965:26–27). Technology for household-related glass bottles from Cesspit 3040 included a minimum of one handfinished, four machine-made, and one bottle with unidentified technology. All originally held cleaning solution. Of note, one bottle contained hydrogen peroxide; a paper label indicated: “. . . POUND/ . . . Y PURE/ [P]EROX[IDE] OF HYDROGEN/ . . . [Aqua Hydrog]enii Dioxidi U. S. P./ . . . H AC[E/F] . . . [0].142 GR. to the . . . / . . . [as] well as externa[ll]y/ . . . safety/ . . . of Hydrogen, [H/N] exposed/ . . . ill decompose . . . owd,/ . . . refor . . . cool pl[ace] . . . ”. One of the bottles was produced by the Illinois Glass Co between 1916 and 1929 (Toulouse 1971:264), with contents made by S. C. Johnson & Co. A cardboard matchbox retained a label fragment reading “[V]ICTOR/MADE IN AMERICA/[SA]FETY MATCHES”. Other household artifacts included a pail or bucket, a glass bird feeder, and a minimum of four vases. Thirty-one vase fragments were found, representing at least one hardpaste porcelain example with celadon glaze; one nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware example with relief molding and decal; colorless pressed glass representing at least two examples; and pink, white, and colorless marbled-glass representing a minimum of one vase. Also recovered from the cesspit were coil/spring fragments that may have been bedsprings, several fragments from a brass bed frame, one ferrous and seven brass finials that may have belonged to a bed, and furniture leg and foot fragments with two porcelain wheels. A hinge was found that may have secured a trashcan lid. Two complete brass keys, likely house keys, were also recovered. Latches present may have been used on doors, gates, and/or trunks. At least two furniture tacks were also found. Assorted fragments of beveled flat-glass from a bureau, dresser, vanity, or desktop were recovered. Three fragments of lug nuts to a bucket or paint can, a doorknob plate, a shower-curtain hanger, three brass shower/curtain rings, a cotter pin, the metal part of a furniture caster, a trunk or luggage buckle closure, a shelf bracket, five L-shaped brackets, hardware/decorative trim from furniture or a trunk, and fragments of coal were also found. Finally, a brown paper doily or papel picado fragment was recovered. Temporally diagnostic household items from Cesspit 3040 indicate a deposition between 1916 and 1929. The small, unstratified features of Lot 7 together contained a number of bones representing cuts of meat from cattle and sheep/goat, considered here together; the analogous content from Cesspit 3040 is discussed separately below. Cattle bones overwhelmingly were cut from the innominates (forming blade steaks), and from ribs that had been sawn into similarly sized pieces of meat. In fact, only a bone that represented a beef roast was identified. Sheep/goat-sized elements were sparse in this lot. Those cuts so identified stemmed principally from ribs, with smaller numbers of vertebral steaks or chops as well as limb roasts or steaks. Like Refuse Pit 623 in Lot 6 of this block, faunal remains from Refuse Pit 518 represented a sample of the overall context; but, unlike Refuse Pit 623, the relative abundance of identified taxa here appeared to follow the pattern established by the numerous other refuse pits excavated within the project area. As with other such features, this one was dominated by the bones of animals within the size range of cattle (Table 58). A few other domesticates rounded out the picture, including pigs, sheep, and chickens, again showing a strong similarity to other refuse pits in the project area. Refuse Pit 531 held a fairly large collection of faunal remains. Most of these, not surprisingly, were identified as elements from domesticated mammals and birds—mainly cattle and chickens plus smaller numbers from sheep, sheep or goats, and pigs—but there appeared to be a few bones of wild animals as well (see Table 58). The wild-animal bones were from squirrel-sized mammals as well as from a somewhat larger animal, possibly a rabbit. It is not clear whether these latter elements represented food remains, accidental inclusions, or even pest control and disposal of vermin (e.g., gophers). Even if these bones were remains from animals that had been eaten, it is clear that such taxa were, at most, only occasional fare, given their low numbers. In addition to the bones, there were a number of eggshell fragments, probably from chickens, as this was the only bird taxon identified, whether by MNI or NISP. Only one cow bone was recovered from Fireplace 947, in addition to four pieces of unidentifiable of eggshell. Cesspit 3040 contained a faunal collection second in size only to that from Cesspit 3042, both in terms of fragment counts and numbers of individuals. The taxonomic content of each stratum is displayed in Table 59, with relative abundance calculated using the NISP method on a stratum by stratum basis. Additionally, the MNIs for birds and rabbits were calculated for the features as a whole (see Table 53). The rabbit MNI estimate for Cesspit 3040 was second in numbers only to Cesspit 3042. Although few in number, the array of wild species—from small mammals like rabbits, to doves and fish—was impressive in its variety. Cesspit 3040 in general contained mostly of bones from large domesticated mammals like cattle and sheep as well as raised 342 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 bird species—chickens and turkeys. The meat cuts identified here presented a contrast to the general pattern outlined for Cesspit 3042. The contrast was most visible with respect to the beef cuts, which were thoroughly dominated by a wide variety of steaks. Although there were a large number of vertebral and pelvic cuts, as in Cesspit 3042, this collection also contained a large number of limb bone pieces that had been sawn into widths appropriate for round steaks. In fact, large, roast-type cuts were rare. More common were ribs, along with a small number of ankle and neck bones, possibly used for soups or stews. Finally, it was interesting to note a few cranial elements, including a tooth from the lower jaw. Roasts carved from sheep carcasses were about as common as were steak cuts from such animals. Ribs, however, were more common than either limbs or axial elements. Similar to the cattle remains from this deposit, sheep elements also included neck, ankle, and cranial bone fragments, and, in an exact parallel to a find from Cesspit 3042, a nearly complete sheep/goat scapula was also recovered from the Cesspit 3040. The relatively few pig elements identified all came from the front and hind limbs as well as the pelvis. These appeared to be a mix of large cuts representing hams, smaller ones which appear to have been steaks, and a few foot bones. Given that the distribution of pig elements did not provide evidence of home butchering, the foot elements were likely consumption detritus left from a formerly popular portion of the animal rather than slaughtering refuse. Stratum II contained a large and varied collection of bones, albeit dominated by those few species which were the most prevalent throughout all the examined deposits—cattle and sheep/goats in that order. Other species are also worth mentioning, as the presence of chicken, turkey, and variety of small mammals in this context was unusual. In addition to ca. 20 bones of unidentifiable rabbits or hares, there were few bones each from cottontails and black-tailed jackrabbits, as well as squirrel-sized mammals. All of these probably represented food remains. There were, however, medium-sized and large mammal remains, such as dogs, cats, and unidentifiable remains of animals in that general size range, within this deposit. The remains of a larger-than-average subadult cat were found in Strata II, III, and V, suggesting that these strata may have been contemporaneous. These were likely the remains of unwanted or deceased pet conveniently disposed of in the pit. Perhaps most unusual was the inclusion of an antler fragment from a mule deer or white-tailed deer. Stratum III contained only around 50 fragments of bone, mainly from sheep/goat-sized mammals and dog- or bobcat-sized mammal. Both cattle and chicken bones were scarce in this deposit, but this was most likely a reflection of the small sample size. In Stratum V, as in the one above it, there were only a few bird bones. This was a characteristic of many of the feature’s strata. Other small animal bones, namely jackrabbits and rabbit-sized mammals, were present here, in addition to elements from both cow-sized and sheep/ goat-sized mammals. What was also unusual was that somewhat more bones were assigned to sheep/goatsized mammals than to cattle-sized ones, because cattle formed the bulk of most of the feature’s assemblage. Stratum VII produced less than 20 bones, all of them from domesticated mammals. Only a single bone, from a pig, was identified. The collection recovered from Stratum VIII provided quite a contrast from several of the higher layers. The sample was bigger than many of the others, containing well over 500 bones, but, like some of the smaller collections from other strata, the number of species identified was not great. There were several fish bones, including Pacific mackerel, barracudas, and jackmackerel; a few bird bones (chicken and turkey); and a small number of rabbit elements. Still, the collection was heavily weighted toward just a couple of species, first and foremost cattle and, secondarily, sheep or goats (most likely sheep). The small collection from Stratum IX, numbering just over 50 bones, contained only elements from domesticated mammals or at least mammals of that size range. We identified nearly twice as many cattle-sized bones as those from sheep/goat-sized mammals; the small remainder were classed as unidentifiable mammals, but they probably belonged to one or the other of these two size classes. The sample from Stratum X, numbering over 700 pieces of bone, was the largest collection from any of this feature’s many strata. Unlike other strata, the largest number of bones did not come from large mammals but, instead, were from chickens and turkeys, or at least birds of that size range (of which there were few). The only other avian taxa present were bones from one or more species of the quail- or dove-size range. Nearly all the remaining bones, with the exception of nearly 20 rabbit or hare elements, came from large barnyard animals. Cattle- and sheep/goat-sized mammals were present in essentially equal numbers, albeit cattle would have supplied a greater amount of meat. Much of the collection from Stratum XI consisted of domestic mammals, within the size range of cattle for the most part. Yet another significant portion of the approximately 100 bones recovered from the context, around 30 percent, consisted of wild-game birds—various species of doves and a number of bones from dove- or quail-sized birds. Among the domesticated mammals from this stratum, the most-numerous identified species was pig. Pigs, relative to sheep/goats and cattle, were generally rare in the analyzed features; their abundance in this stratum was therefore unusual. Similar to Stratum XI, Stratum XII also produced a 343 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest variety of elements from game birds, both several species of doves and quail, in addition to domesticated birds. Among the domestic mammals were found an abundance of elements from sheep- or goat-sized mammals, which outnumbered cattle (or cattle-sized) remains by approximately 3:1. Some of those bones classed as sheep/goat-sized could conceivably have been from pigs because that taxon falls within the same general size range and was rather prominent in this stratum. In fact, pigs made up the same proportion of this collection as they did in the preceding one, approximately 10 percent. The collection from Stratum XIII was considerably larger than those from Strata XI and XII, but fewer species were recovered here than in the smaller collections. Fewer bones of wild birds came to light during analysis of this deposit. The only wild bird was Gambel’s quail, represented by a few bones. In fact, among birds, only the chicken or chicken-sized birds were significant contributors to the sample. Instead, the major components of the faunal collection were domesticated mammals, first cattle and secondarily sheep or goats. Pigs were represented but they were not as abundant as in succeeding layers. Scattered among these food remains were a small number of bones from unidentified carnivores, possibly one or more dogs, presumably unrelated to food consumption. Contained within Stratum XIVa–d was a rather unusual faunal collection. Instead of being dominated by large numbers of bones from either birds or mammals, half of the total bones recovered came from unidentifiable fish. This was certainly surprising because fish bones were not nearly as common in any of the other deposits selected for study. It is possible this may have been more to do with recovery techniques than dietary preferences and availability. Another quarter of the collection came from birds, but no one species, not even chickens, was much more common than another. Instead, unidentifiable small birds, as well as chickenor turkey-sized birds, were about equally represented. Domesticated mammals were similarly sparse; the most common were bones from animals the size of cattle. Stratum XVI, the lowest stratum in Cesspit 3040, contained less than 50 pieces of bone. All the recovered bone was assigned to just two taxonomic groups; a handful of elements could be positively identified as pig bones, but the rest could only be assigned to the sheep/goat-sized mammal category. In all likelihood, most of the latter elements were indeed from sheep or goats (and more likely the former than the latter species), but the lack of preserved definitive characteristics and the fact that these taxa overlap in size with both pigs and deer prevented further identification. Invertebrate analysis for Refuse Pit 518 was based on a nonsystematic sample. The analyzed collection included four pieces (MNI = 1) of Pacific giant oyster weighing a total of 83.2 g. This sample probably represented the residues of edible shellfish. Considering the presence of Pacific giant oyster, the refuse pit was, in part, likely used sometime after 1902, when the Pacific giant oyster industry was initially established on the West Coast. Cesspit 3040 yielded two types of oysters: an eastern oyster recovered from Stratum II, dating between the 1920s and 1940s, and Pacific giant oyster identified in Strata V and VIII, the latter dating to sometime after 1906 (Table 60). Most (MNI = 4) of the analyzed invertebrate remains from the cesspit were recovered from Stratum V. The analyzed sample consisted of a Pacific giant oyster shell in addition to a variety of other taxa, including a single specimen each of oyster of unidentifiable species, speckled scallop, and a Florida fighting conch. The oyster and scallop were likely food remains originating along the West Coast. Although Florida fighting conchs are reportedly edible, considering that it was the only one of its kind recovered from Joint Courts Complex postcemetery analyzed contexts, the shell was likely part of a beachcombing or seashell collection. Florida fighting conchs are found along the eastern coast ranging from North Carolina to Mexico. A single cone shell was identified in Stratum XI. Rather than representing food consumption, the cone shell was likely collected during a visit to the seashore and part of personal seashell collection. Interestingly, a cone shell spire-lopped bead was recovered from Cesspit 3042 as well as from a prehistoric context, Pit Structure 3370. Stratum XII yielded a crab claw, likely representing food remains. It is unclear whether the crab was brought to Tucson from the West or East Coast. Macrobotanical analysis was conducted on samples taken from three features on Block 254, Lot 7: Fireplaces 947 and 6088, and Cesspit 3040 (see Table 6). Botanical remains in the fireplaces were primarily charred wood species including Douglas fir, mesquite, and indeterminate cypress or juniper. Interestingly, chili pepper seeds were also recovered from Fireplace 6088. Chilies are a New World domesticate valued as food and medicine (Kay 1996:123). This plant was rarely recovered from the Joint Courts Complex project area. Cesspit 3040 contained most of the identified plant taxa and provided a glimpse into the total universe of plants living and used on this lot. Eight of the 13 stratigraphic units of this feature were sampled, resulting in 18 identified taxa. Most of the identified plants (n = 15) were observed in Stratum II, which also made up 35 percent of the total volume of sediment excavated from the cesspit. Mesquite, figs, and raspberries were the most ubiquitous species and were encountered throughout the stratigraphic units of the cesspit (see Table 6). 344 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Chronology, Correlation, and Summary To summarize the results of the analysis for Lot 6, property-ownership records for Block 254, Lots 6 and 7, contained confusing details regarding owners and residents on the lots between 1914 and 1920. This complicating factor, together with archaeological evidence for a conduit that allowed material to move from Cesspit 3040 to Cesspit 3042, rendered problematic the assignment of particular strata of Cesspit 3042 to specific households. The conduit no doubt carried waste, including artifacts from the pit on Lot 7 into the pit on Lot 6. To further complicate interpretation, materials from Lot 6 may have been deposited in the top of Cesspit 3040 during the same period that waste from Lot 7 entered the feature via the conduit at a lower level. It may be that the Mahoney family lived on both lots at various times, first at 48 E. Alameda and later at 34 E. Alameda Street. Some artifactual evidence, as will be shown below, was recovered to support this interpretation. In any case, the two lots maintained a close association, at least during those years when the two cesspits were in use. Although Refuse Pit 623 could not be positively assigned to a specific household on Lot 6, some interesting discoveries were made. It contained a jar manufactured in 1915, which indicated deposition during the Mahoney tenure or later. It also contained a notable amount of bones from chicken-sized birds. Cesspit 3042, on the other hand, provided some of the most reliable information regarding a particular household among features that dated to the residential period in the project area. Archival data revealed a curious title swap in the year 1920 for Lots 6 and 7, which may have represented nothing more than an error in paperwork prior to that date; nevertheless, we know that Thomas and Elizabeth Wills lived on Lot 6 from 1921 to 1937, when the house was demolished. Newspapers dated 1916 and 1917 were found as low as Stratum V/VI, and the 1920 penny was found above that point. Using these firm dates, all material culture in Cesspit 3042 above Stratum V/VI was determined to be attributable to the Wills household. Cesspit 3042 contained a wide variety of domestic refuse. Temporally diagnostic artifacts from the feature had manufacture dates ranging from 1862 to 1957, with the residential period falling well within that span. The house on Lot 6 was built between 1890 and 1894, and it was razed ca. 1937. Datable artifacts from the residential period suggested deposition between 1890 and about 1930, suggesting that the cesspit was used throughout the time a house stood on the lot. Ceramic makers’ marks indicated that most of the wares were manufactured in the United States or United Kingdom, but a few marks denoted fancier or more-expensive imports from Austria, Bavaria, China, and France. Utilitarian hotelware was found throughout the feature. Most matching wares were from the same or adjacent stratigraphic units, indicating items were deposited in single deposition episodes. Ceramic makers’ marks identified in Cesspit 3042 were also identified in other features in the project area. This may be because residents of the project area purchased these items from the same merchants or because they had similar preferences for the same types of items. The residents were most likely influenced by the material culture in neighboring households and chose similar items for themselves. The stratigraphic distribution of ceramic fragments in Cesspit 3042 reflected several single-deposition events. The varying densities and frequencies of artifacts throughout this feature did not mirror other artifact categories and may have indicated events when domestic refuse was deposited in the cesspit during a brief period. Ceramic vessels represent a less disposable form of material culture than many other artifact categories, and this distribution is informative. Ceramics were few throughout the lower strata of the feature, suggesting occasional deposition as breakage occurred. Deposition of human waste and household refuse appeared consistent through strata that predated the 1920s (a 1920 penny was found in Stratum IV). Above that point in the feature, one stratum (Stratum II) contained more ceramic sherds than any other, suggesting a deposition event such as cleaning or a change of household. Commercially packaged food and beverage containers included bottles that once held extracts, condiments, and milk from local dairies. Shards from a number of home canning jars suggested that at least one household on the lot may have preserved food at home. Liquor containers from the feature indicated a preference for beer over distilled spirits or wine/champagne; beer bottles in the collection were made between 1873 and 1929, and wine bottles between 1902 and 1929. No diagnostic liquor bottles recovered from this feature had production dates during the later years of residential occupation on this lot. Likely this was because the feature was filled and capped before the end of the residential period. The feature also yielded a promotional miniature beer bottle and a cordial glass. The concentration of beer bottles predating 1928 suggested deposition during the period that Mrs. Fairbanks was renting the house or during the Paul or Mahoney tenures. 345 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Cesspit 3042 also contained evidence of medicines designed to treat a variety of ailments, including sore muscles, blood purifiers, and cough and respiratory treatments. Most of these products were nationally distributed and were identified in other features within the Joint Courts Complex project area. A few bottles were made for compounding druggists; these included examples from Yuma and Seattle. Fifty-seven percent of medicine containers in this feature dated to the Wills’s period of occupation and included proprietary medications and the amber bottle containing unidentified pills. Demographic information was gleaned from many of the artifacts. A melted nursing bottle from Stratum IV indicated the presence of an infant, although it was determined to be a secondary deposit and, thus, this attribution should be taken with caution. Men’s, women’s, and babies’ clothing were represented by fasteners from the feature, and both men’s and women’s shoes were identified. Toys included doll parts, marbles, two balls, a horse, and a skate key. Tobacco use in the household was revealed in the presence of tobacco tins and an ashtray. A leather book cover bearing the Knights of Pythias emblem was recovered. Daniel Mahoney, who resided on the lot from 1914 to 1920, is known to have maintained membership in that organization. Mahoney also worked as a conductor for the Southern Pacific Railroad; a railroad uniform button marked “CONDUCTOR” was recovered from the feature. Cesspit 3042 also yielded a diverse array of personal items. Included were containers for hydrogen peroxide, perfume, and four 1-gallon shampoo bottles (possibly attributed to the Powder Puff Beauty Salon, which was located in Block 254, Lot 5, immediately northeast of this lot). Jewelry included two finger rings, a pendant, watch, fob, two chains, a concho, a medal commemorating California, and a hatpin. Four pair of spectacles, hairpins, a barrette, two pocket knives, a purse, and an umbrella were also recovered. Of particular interest was the presence of a paper embosser marked with the name of a local mine; the mine company was formed in 1906 but never went into production. The presence of this piece of highly specific office equipment suggested that a resident on this lot was involved in the mine at the outset. If this item was discarded when the mine became officially defunct (1914), it might be attributed to the Fairbanks, a rental, or the Paul occupations. Transportation-related artifacts from Cesspit 3042 included horse tack and wagon hardware, as well as automobile parts. All of the automobile artifacts were recovered from stratigraphic units that contained a high density of architectural debris and were posited to represent filling of the unneeded cesspit that had been used during the residential era; this can reasonably be attributed to the automobile sales and service establishments that occupied this and surrounding lots during the commercial period. Evidence of oil/kerosene lighting was found in the cesspit, as well as a variety of electric lighting parts and other fragments of electrical equipment. Woodstove parts were recovered. Some household activities may be inferred from artifacts in the collection: fabric-dye bottles, bluing balls, and cleaning solution containers suggested on-site laundering and housecleaning activities. Stratigraphic differences in construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts in this feature were interpreted to represent changes in depositional behavior over time. Lower stratigraphic units, where construction artifacts were largely absent, may have reflected the strictly domestic use of this feature during its use as a cesspit. Overlaying stratigraphic units in this feature were created by filling events intended to cap the cesspit when it was no longer needed. High quantities of architectural debris that were encountered but not quantified in Strata I, II, and III included mortar, adobe brick fragments, and quarried basalt rock, indicating that this feature was filled with undifferentiated fill in order to establish grade. Variations in the density of these artifacts indicated periods when greater quantities of construction materials were deposited; this suggests deposition of this artifact category was periodic, perhaps reflecting construction or demolition events. Overall, Cesspit 3042 was dominated by just two animal species: domesticated cattle and chickens. The total numbers of bones identified for each of the two species were similar, and there were at least 40 individual chickens and chicken-sized birds deposited in the cesspit. However, beef far outnumbered other types of meat in abundance. Evidence suggested at least some of the chickens were laying hens, and both small (bantam-sized) and large (Plymouth Rock Mix size) were identified. Bone pathologies suggested that hens were kept for some length of time. A poultry feeder from the cesspit provided further evidence that residents kept a household flock. Many beef cuts contain more meat than an average chicken, and in addition, if the cow-sized bones from the feature—more than 1,000 fragments—were indeed from cattle, then this species outnumbered the total number of chicken bones by a ratio of about 2:1. Other important taxa included turkeys, which were second only to chickens in terms of MNI calculated for avian species, and, to a much lesser extent, quail, sheep or goats, and pigs. A fishhook and shotgun shells suggested that residents at 34 E. Alameda Street supplemented 346 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 food stores via fishing and hunting. Although much less important than chicken remains in this collection, it should be mentioned that we also identified bones of several dove and quail species, possibly from birds obtained by hunting, bought as wild game at markets, or even raised in backyard coops. Identified plant taxa provided more information on landscaping and discarded material culture than foods used within the household on this lot. Mesquite and members of the indeterminate ChenopodiaceaeAmaranthus are native to the Tucson Basin and continued historically within the built-environment. Cottonwood, a member of the Populus genera, is native to watered bottomlands of the Tucson Basin. Chinaberry was widely used for landscaping in the Southwest, as evidenced by its frequent identification in macrobotanical analyses conducted at other historical-period sites (see Appendix J). Charred Douglas fir and cypress or juniper fragments may have been burned refuse that was discarded in the cesspit over time. The only food remains, fig and raspberry seeds, were also widely recovered across the Joint Courts Complex project area and were common foods in this and other households. To summarize the results of the Block 254, Lot 7, investigations, little material culture was identified in Refuse Pit 518; the faunal collection provided the most information that could be gleaned from it. The relative abundance of faunal taxa from this feature appeared to follow the pattern of other refuse pits in the project area. Cattle-sized bone dominated the collection, with smaller amounts of pig, sheep, and chicken bones. Four pieces of Pacific giant oyster shell were recovered. The artifacts suggested the presence of women and children on the lot, in the form of cosmetics, a hairpin, a doll fragment, and a marble. Home preserving was indicated in the glass collection. A harness buckle and an automobile license plate showed that residential occupation of the lot spanned that transition in transportation technology. Refuse Pit 531 yielded mostly cattle and chicken bone, together with smaller numbers of sheep/goats and pigs, and a small amount of wild animals. Overall, artifacts in Refuse Pit 531 demonstrated manufacture between 1873 and 1929, indicating that the feature was created prior to the last residential occupations. Likely this represents the filling and capping of the feature prior to the end of the residential period. As discussed previously, the presence of a conduit that carried waste (and with it, undoubtedly, artifacts) from Cesspit 3040 on Lot 7 to Cesspit 3042 on Lot 6 (described above), rendered problematic the assignment of particular strata in the former cesspit to specific households. To further complicate interpretation, materials may have been deposited on the top of Cesspit 3040 during the same period that waste from Lot 7 was carried to the pit in Lot 6 via the conduit at a lower level. Nevertheless, some observations can be made about the activities of the residents on Lot 7 and its neighbor, Lot 6. Food and beverage bottles from Cesspit 3040 included a container for a Mexican beverage that began production in 1909 and a grape juice bottle made after 1869. Soft drinks, milk, olive oil, and condiments were represented among the containers. One milk bottle was from a local dairy which operated between 1917 and 1933. Jars representing home preserves and commercially packaged foods were recovered. Fourteen canned-heat (many of the Sterno brand) cans were identified—12 from Stratum II, and 2 from Stratum VIII. The presence of Sterno cans could suggest the residents undertook a cooking/heating activity that did not involve a wood or gas stove. However, the presence of such a large number of Sterno fuel cans in Stratum II raised questions about their use. A domestic refuse deposit would not be expected to yield numerous fuel cans, assuming that the household operated a wood, gas, or electric stove. Sterno cans would have been used in the home under chafing dishes, so buffet entertaining might be suggested. And, the cans could have been employed by hunters and travelers for camp cooking. In that case, however, disposal at the campsite would be expected. It is possible that the residence was without a stove during the period the cans were deposited; many stove parts were found in neighboring Cesspit 3042. Alternatively, the number of cans recovered from this feature might suggest that one or more of the residents indulged in the Prohibition-era practice of drinking Sterno fuel. Most of the cans were found in Stratum II, which was one of the last levels to be deposited prior to abandonment of the cesspit. Unfortunately, the residence on Lot 7 was occupied by at least nine separate rental households during Prohibition, and it was not possible to tie the artifacts with certainty to a specific residency. Sterno fuel was available through mail order for 95 cents a dozen in 1921 (Butler Brother’s 1921:157), and for $2.25 per dozen in ca. 1929 (Union Hardware & Metal Company n.d.:2288). It likely was also available from local merchants. The Sterno brand company had kitchenette sets consisting of a polished aluminum boiler (1-pint capacity), a folding stove, one can of fuel, and an extinguisher available for purchase at a price of 39 cents in 1927 (Mirken 1970:646). Some demographic information can be gleaned from artifacts in Cesspit 3040. Beer was the preferred alcoholic beverage during most of the occupancy of this lot. Clothing fasteners represented men’s, women’s, and babies’ clothing. At least one railroad employee rented housing at 48 Alameda Street between 1918 and 347 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 1929; railway uniform buttons were identified, but these were not from local railroads and could have represented either an older employee uniform or a hobby collection. Silk, taffeta, and stocking fabric represented women’s garments. At least one woman’s shoe and another shoe that may have been worn by a woman or child were identified. The Kelley family had children while living on Lot 7; other rental families may have included children, as well. Toys and recreational items from this feature included golf balls, marbles, doll parts, wheels, a poker chip, and toy dishes. A snuff bottle, tobacco tins, smoking pipe fragments, and spittoon fragments indicated tobacco use by at least one resident. A train/trolley token may have been a travel souvenir. Health and hygiene artifacts from Cesspit 3040 included one rectal and two vaginal fountain-syringe nozzles. A tin container for condoms was also identified. One bottle had contained dandruff shampoo. Other personal items from the feature included lipstick tubes likely marketed between 1927 and 1931, which placed them within the rental and boardinghouse period of occupation on Lot 7. Also recovered were containers for perfume, lotions (purchased from an Owl Drug chain outlet located in Tucson), and shoe polish. Jewelry included beads, a brooch, a cufflink, and a chain. Also recovered were a pocket watch, two pocket knives, purse fragments, and a hair clip. Medicines represented by containers in the collection were used to treat common internal ailments, muscle pain, and respiratory complaints. Of interest was a grape juice bottle that had been repurposed by an unidentified local druggist and filled with castor oil. Bottle reuse was common during the nineteenth century but tapered off during the twentieth century. The decrease in bottle reuse was motivated by lobbying from the bottle manufacturing industry until reuse was prohibited by law in 1935 (Busch 2000:182–183). This artifact provides important insights into the nature of the pharmaceutical trade during the late nineteenth century, a time when pharmacists made medicines using whatever materials were available and dispensed medical advice as well as medicine to customers. Numerous paper fragments were recovered from Cesspit 3040. Most were newspapers from Arizona, Texas, and California, but magazines were also included. Stratum II, near the top of the feature, yielded newspapers and receipts dated 1911, together with beer bottles that could have been manufactured any time between 1915 and 1954. This temporal information suggests that the papers were curated in the home for at least a few years prior to disposal in the pit and also suggests that the cesspit was filled and no longer used soon after 1915. The length of residence on Lot 7 of the Kelley family was not revealed in archival sources. Rembler Paul occupied the residence in 1914, and Mrs. Kelley had moved to 503 E 4th Street by September 1914 when the second son was born. It is possible that the papers were deposited when the household changed hands from the Kelley’s to Mr. Paul. Of particular interest were the paper receipts made out to Mose Kelley or Mrs. Kelley documenting shopping excursions to several stores, including Pagoda Tea and Coffee (43 E. Congress), Washington Market (501 and 503 N. 6th), The New York Store, Pacific Grocery (128 E. Congress), Fulton’s Market (16, 18, 20 E. Congress), and a furniture store. The receipts are reproduced in Appendix M and reveal a wealth of information regarding commerce and consumer behavior in one Tucson family during a tightly defined period. They provide an unusual record of many of the Kelley family’s expenditures during the last half of May and the month of June, 1911. Most sales were for food, especially meat, which in the form of mutton or beef was purchased nearly every day. Bread was bought nearly every other day, but chicken was purchased only once. Most receipts were from Pacific Grocery, but meat was often bought at Fulton’s Market or the Washington Market. The Kelleys bought butter, cheese, bacon, beans, and baking supplies, as well as other foods, but only a few fresh fruit and vegetable purchases were recorded, and none overlapped with the pollen or macrobotanical evidence recovered from the feature. A few receipts also showed nonfood purchases, including tobacco and matches, borax, and a lard can from Pacific Grocery. Two pillows and two pitchers were acquired at a furniture store, and a large purchase of several kinds of yard goods was made at The New York Store. A typesetter block recovered from Cesspit 3040 that appeared to have been a business card read in part, “G. M. MOON”. Although no one with that name is known to have lived in the project area, a number of local G. Moons were identified in archival sources. Lot 7 yielded a wide variety of transportation-related artifacts. Ninety percent of transportation artifacts in Cesspit 3040 were recovered in upper strata composed of fill and refuse used to level the depression. Only a few fragments of horse tack were present; the rest of the transportation-related artifacts were related to automobiles. Much of this collection was likely attributed to the Gouley Burcham and the Hackett Whiting Pontiac automobile sales and service establishments that operated on the lot after the residential period. Most of the construction and hardware artifacts found in Cesspit 3040 were concentrated in upper levels and represented demolition episodes and filling of the pit. Among artifacts in this category were a few 348 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 items that revealed fragments of the residential period on the lot. Included were a white porcelain doorknob, barbed wire, linoleum fragments, and flowerpots. Numerous artifacts represented electrical components and fragments of the electrical infrastructure on the lot. The household was equipped with a wood-cooking stove and a pot-bellied heating stove, as well as an oil/gas stove. Brass bed parts were recovered. Housekeeping activities were represented by a number of artifacts. Two sad irons were recovered, one of which was gas-heated. Bottles that once held cleaning solution were identified. Decorative items included a surprising number of glass vases and a fragment of brown paper papel picado, or doily. One leisure activity on the lot was indicated by a bird feeder. Temporally diagnostic household items from this feature indicate a deposition between 1916 and 1929. Faunal material from Cesspit 3040 consisted mostly of cattle and sheep bone, together with smaller numbers of chickens and turkeys. Beef cuts were dominated by steaks, with few roasts. The large collection from this feature, which contained more than 2,500 pieces of bone, represented primarily two taxonomic groups, cattle-sized mammals and sheep/goat-sized mammals. Elements assigned to these two categories, in addition to those definitively identified as cow, sheep, or sheep/goat, accounted for slightly more than half of the total sample. The next numerous group was the avifauna, chiefly chickens or chicken-sized birds, which accounted for over 10 percent the collection. Although a number of other avian species were identified, they were, for the most part, not present in large numbers. An exception to this was turkey, which contributed about half as many bones as chickens. The difference in relative abundance between those two bird species was even more dramatically expressed when MNI estimates were used. Whereas chickens accounted for more than a third of all avian individuals, turkeys made up only around 10 percent of the total. In addition to these domesticated animals, there were also a number of wild-game species included in the deposit. Fish, for instance, were more common within this feature than in most others. Several species of saltwater fish, presumably brought to Tucson by train, either fresh or preserved in some fashion, were identified in the feature. These were recovered in lower strata predating 1906 and were therefore attributed to the Fairbanks’s tenure. In addition to somewhat exotic imported game, locally hunted (or possibly raised) species found in the deposit included quail, doves, and various rabbit species. Their presence testifies to the access urban residents still had to nondomesticated animals. Despite the low frequencies of analyzed invertebrate remains recovered from Cesspit 3040, the collection contained of a variety of shell taxa, most of which were edible varieties of oyster and scallop as well as low frequencies of crab claw and nonedible types of shell. The Florida fighting conch from Stratum V was a relatively unusual find, indicating that shell recovered from the cesspit may have originated as far east and south as North Carolina or Mexico. In addition to the conch, the cesspit yielded two other shell types that were relatively unusual in the analyzed invertebrate collection from the project area—the cone shell from Stratum XI and an abalone shell recovered from an excavation level not formally sampled. The whole abalone shell, weighing 265.6 g, showed no evidence of modification. The shell may have represented food remains; however, considering that abalone meat was not typically shipped in its bulky shell and that abalone was not a preferred food by Anglo-Americans or Spanish-Americans during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the shell may have been a curio (Hector 2002:107). The shell may have been part of a beachcombing or natural-history seashell collection, used as a container, or perhaps was intended for the manufacture of other items such as mother-of-pearl buttons or jewelry (Hector 2002:107). Grasses, woods, and native species from Cesspit 3040 provided information on plants that historically lived near or within the project area. Six taxa of wood—ponderosa pine, mesquite, Douglas fir, oak, indeterminate poplar/willow, and Cupressus/Juniperus—were also observed throughout the cesspit. Mesquite and poplar/willow are native to landforms similar to the one the project area is located on, the other wood species were used in construction and most likely represented the charred remains of discarded material culture. An indeterminate member of the Poaceae family and horse purslane were native plants found across the Joint Courts Complex project area. The goathead weed (Tribulus terrestris) in this feature was an unwanted invasive species from the Old World that most likely established itself on Block 254, Lot 7. Chinaberry was a landscaping shrub widely used throughout the Southwest (see Appendix J). Identified food plants provided data about the culinary assemblage used by residents of Block 254, Lot 7. Nearly half of the identified taxa (n = 7) were food plants. Fruits in this feature—figs, raspberries, and grapes—were found in most strata of the feature. Vegetables in this feature included tomatillos and the remains of an indeterminate member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which includes melons, gourds, and squash. Corn and wheat were the identified grain staples in Cesspit 3040; these crops were well established in the Tucson Basin by the turn of the twentieth century. Identified foods in Cesspit 3040 indicate that a heterogeneous assemblage of Old and New World plants were part of the culinary tradition of the historical-period residents on this lot. 349 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Finally, archaeological features representing the residential period on Block 254, Lots 6 and 7, spanned the entire period of household occupation. The residential period on Block 254, Lots 6 and 7, was represented by building remnants, refuse pits, two cesspits, and utility trenches. Refuse Pit 518 could not be attributed to a particular household. Refuse Pit 531 could have been deposited by any but the last residential occupation. Cesspit 3040 provides some of the best information regarding the residential period of any feature in the project area. The material culture from this feature was deposited between the time a residence was first built on Lot 7, and about 1920, when the feature was filled and abandoned. The date that the feature was filled may also have been close to the start of Prohibition in Arizona. As demonstrated in the interpretations above, the archaeological investigations of this feature revealed some trends in consumption by the site occupants. The Fairbanks family’s preferences were distinct from those of later occupants. The only fish remains identified in this feature were deposited during the residency of the Fairbanks family between 1891 and 1905. Beer was consumed in the Fairbanks household between 1906 and 1910, after which time, a rental household on the lot exhibited a preference for distilled spirits. Soon thereafter, ca. 1911, one household (perhaps Kelley) again deposited beer bottle glass in the feature. Newspapers and receipts dated 1911 were recovered near the top of the feature, yet there was good evidence that the feature was filled and abandoned some 15 years prior to demolition of the residence in 1937. Likely, the papers were stored in the home for some time prior to disposal—perhaps at the time the residence was finally abandoned in preparation for razing. Near the top of Cesspit 3042, Stratum II contained an abundance of ceramic artifacts, supporting the theory of house cleaning upon abandonment. Based on their material culture, residents of Lots 6 and 7 enjoyed a middle-class lifestyle typical of other households in the project area. Although the conduit linking Cesspit 3040 with Cesspit 3042 complicated interpretation, it did reveal an interesting link between the two properties. Clearly, the houses operated as a unit throughout much of their occupation. It is impossible to sort out refuse disposed of by various rental households on the lots, yet analysis of these artifacts indicated that the households were quite similar in both consumption and disposal practices. The commercial period was represented by archaeological remains consisting of building foundations and refuse resulting largely from the automotive sales/service industry. No archaeological evidence was recovered that represented the activities of the financial establishments, Pima County offices, or the painting business that once were on Lots 6 and 7. 350 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 85. Block 254, Lot 7. 351 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 86. Mose Kelley, who resided at 48 E. Alameda Street between 1910 and 1912 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 1893). Inset: One of many Kelley family purchase receipts recovered from Cess Pit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7. 352 Figure 87. Feature Profiles of Cess Pit 3042 (left) and Cess Pit 3040 (right). Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 353 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 88. Plan View of Cess Pits 3042 and 3040, showing Tunnel 27071 which connected them, Trench 108, which led from Building U (34 E. Alameda Street), and their relationship to Grave Pit 3041. 354 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 89. Promotional Anheuser-Busch metal bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000D5FF). 355 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 90. Heinz Chow Chow Pickle bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 080002499). 356 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 91. Fire-affected nursing bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000D643). 357 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 92. Local (Tucson Ice Cream Co.) milk bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000CB20). 358 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 93. Dandy flask-shaped “Old Sunnybrook Whiskey” bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042. (Inventory No. 0800031C2). 359 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 94. Champagne/wine-shaped “Fratelli Branca” bottle from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000D641). 360 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 95. Metal buttons inlaid with green glass-paste jewels from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000D71F). Figure 96. Southern Pacific Railroad uniform buttons from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000D71E). Figure 97. Plastic buttons from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000D422). 361 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 98. Leather moccasin from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000241B). 362 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 99. Brass “California” pendant/medallion from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000D67F). Figure 100. Hand-painted porcelain accessory from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 0800024B3). 363 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 101. Gold-framed eyeglasses from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 0800024CE). 364 Figure 102. Rectangular medicine bottle with pills from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000308F). Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 103. “Happy Hooligan” figurine from Block 254, Lot 6, Cess Pit 3042 (Inventory No. 08000CEDB). 365 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 366 Figure 104. Heinz Worcestershire Sauce bottle from Block 254, Lot 7, Cess Pit 3040 (Inventory No. 08000C5D). Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 105. Whiskey bottle distributed by Neil and O’Keefe from Block 254, Lot 7, Cess Pit 3040 (Inventory No. 08000302F). 367 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 106. Erie Railroad uniform button from Block 254, Lot 7, Cess Pit 3040 (Inventory No. 080008F37). Figure 107. Long Island Railroad uniform button from Block 254, Lot 7, Cess Pit 3040 (Inventory No. 080008F89). Figure 108. Levi Strauss fly button from Block 254, Lot 7, Cess Pit 3040 (Inventory No. 0800094E8). Figure 109. Poker chip from Block 254, Lot 7, Cess Pit 3040 (Inventory No. 080001F1A). 368 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Figure 110. “Dover” sad iron from Block 254, Lot 7, Cess Pit 3040 (Inventory No. 080001C68). 369 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 45. Ceramic Makers’ Marks in Cess Pit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 Manufacturer Country Of Origin Level/Stratum Date Reference Homer Laughlin “Golden Gate” United States Level 2, 3 ca. 1896 Page et al. 2003:31 Homer Laughlin United States Level 2 1890–1900 Page et al. 2003:30–31 France Level 1, 2, 5 1888–1896 marks4ceramics.com 2004 William Brunt Pottery United States Level 2 ca. 1894 Gates and Ormerod 1982:21 Chinese maker’s mark China Level 5 Schmidt Victoria Austria Stratum IV 1904–1918 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 West End Pottery United States Stratum IV 1893–1938 Lehner 1988:512 Dresden Pottery Company United States Stratum IV 1875–1890 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 Homer Laughlin “Hotel” United States Stratum IV ca. 1900 Lehner 1988:247 Crown Pottery Company United Kingdom Stratum IV, V, VI 1891–1904 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:30 United States Stratum IV 1899–1908 Page et al. 2003:35 “Warranted Ironstone” United Kingdom Stratum IV after 1891 Godden 1964:11 C. Challinor and Company United Kingdom Stratum V 1892–1896 Godden 1964:137 Austria Stratum V 1890s–1963 Marks4ceramics.com 2004 United Kingdom Stratum V ca. 1891 Godden 1964:102 United States Stratum V, VI ca. 1900 Lehner 1988:245–246 Bavaria Stratum V, VI after 1891 Godden 1964:11 United Kingdom Stratum VIb–c 1890–1906 Godden 1964:655 Haviland and Company, Limoges Homer Laughlin “American Beauty” George Bassett/ Limoges Bridgewood and Son Homer Laughlin “Genesee” Unknown Wedgwood and Company Table 46. Medicine Bottle Summary for Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 Level/ Stratum MVC Manufacturer/ Product Origin Dates of Production Product Use Reference 2 1 Obear-Nestor Glass Company East St. Louis, Illinois 1915–1980 container, unknown contents Whitten 2009 2 1 Bromo-Seltzer Baltimore, Maryland 1899–present gastrointestinal Fike 2006:111 2 1 Ayer’s Cherry Pectoral United States 1847–1970s respiratory treatment Fike 2006:199 2 1 Scott’s Emulsion United States 1876–1983 cod liver oil Fike 2006:196 3, V 3 Dr. King’s New Discovery St. Louis, Missouri 1878–1948 respiratory treatment Fike 2006:109 III 1 Owens-Illinois Glass Company United States 1929–present container, unknown contents Whitten 2009 III, IV 3 Sharpe and Dohme Baltimore, Maryland 1860–1953 container, unknown contents Fike 2006:180 IV 2 Listerine/Lambert Pharmaceutical Company East St. Louis, Illinois 1894–1915 oral antiseptic rinse Fike 2006:67 370 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Level/ Stratum Manufacturer/ Product Origin 13 Illinois Glass Company Alton, Illinois IV, V 2 Mentholatum IV, V 6 “Lyric”/Illinois Glass Company IV, V 7 IV 1 Sloan’s Linement IV 2 IV Dates of Production Product Use Reference 1915–1929 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971 Wichita, Kansas, New York, New York 1889–present topical ointment, respiratory aide Fike 2006:83 Alton, Illinois 1928–1929 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:264; Griffenhagen and Bogard 1999:118 1902–1925 container, unknown contents Whitten 2009 United States 1852–1929 muscle treatment Fike 2006:137 Whitall Tatum and Company Millville, New Jersey 1857–1935 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:544 2 Owens Bottle Company United States 1911–1929 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:383 IV 1 Stewart and Holmes Drug Company Seattle, Washington 1890–1904 container, unknown contents Bethman 1991:813 IV 2 Parke Davis and Company Detroit, Michigan 1875–1920 container, unknown Griffenhagen and contents Bogard 1999:86–87, 127 IV, VIf–g 2 Southern Pacific Company Hospital United States IV 1 Turner Brothers Company Terre Haute, Indiana IV, V 3 Pawnee Indian TooRee IV, VIf–g 4 V IV, IV/V, V, VIb–e MVC Illinois Pacific Glass San Francisco, Company California container, unknown contents Fike 2006:78 1915–1929 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:490 San Francisco, California 1891–1930 blood and kidney treatment Fike 2006:176 Dr. Pierce’s Anuric Tablet Buffalo, New York 1870–1982 blood and kidney treatment Fike 2006:110,232 1 Wyeth and Company Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1899–1931 container, unknown contents Fike 2006:121,187 V 1 Pepto-Mangan New York, New York 1891–1985 gastrointestinal Fike 2006:176 V/VI 1 Cunninghams and Company Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ca.1879–1907 container, unknown contents Whitten 2009 VIa 1 Phillip’s Milk of Magnesia United States 1873–present gastrointestinal Fike 2006:73,141 VIb–e 2 Will H. Minor Yuma, Arizona 1892–1933 container, unknown contents Fike 2006:72 VIb–e 1 J. T. and A. Hamilton Glass Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 1900–1943 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:290 VIf–g 1 Musterole Cleveland, Ohio 1906–1948+ topical medicine Fike 2006:174 VIf–g 1 Western Bottle Manufacturing Company Chicago, Illinois ca.1901–1930s container, unknown contents Whitten 2009 VIf–g 1 Owl Drug Company United States 1892–1933 container, unknown contents Fike 2006:72 VIf–g 1 Carr-Lowry Glass Company Baltimore, Maryland 1889–1920 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:134 371 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 47. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Fish and Amphibians) Level/Stratum Coho Salmon Barracudas Jackmackerel California Halibut Frog or Toad — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2 2 1 — 1.00 1.00 <1.00 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Level 1 NISP % Level 2 NISP % Level 3 NISP % Level 5 NISP % Stratum Ia–c NISP % Stratum II NISP % Stratum III NISP % Stratum IV NISP % <1.00 Stratum IV/V NISP % Stratum V NISP % <1.00 Stratum V/VI NISP % Stratum VIa NISP % Stratum VIb–e NISP % Stratum VIf–g 372 1 <1.00 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Level/Stratum NISP Coho Salmon Barracudas Jackmackerel California Halibut Frog or Toad — 1 — — — % <1.00 Stratum VIIa–b NISP — — — — — 2 3 2 1 1 <1.00. <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 % Total NISP % Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 373 Stratum IV/V % NISP Stratum IV % NISP Stratum II % NISP Stratum II % NISP Stratum Ia–c % NISP Level 5 % NISP Level 3 % NISP Level 2 % NISP Level 1 Level/Stratum Gallinaceous Birds 6.00 <1.00 4.00 29 2.00 3.00 38 1 — — — — — — Wild or Domestic Turkey 2 — — 1.00 4 17.00 7 31.00 34 36.00 10 Domestic Chicken 3 — — — — — — — Gambel's Quail 2.00 14 2.00 1 4.00 1 — 3.00 9 5 2 5.00 5 — Pigeons and Doves — — — — — — 3.00 3 — Zenaida Doves — — 4.00 1 — 1.00 4 — — — Rock Dove — — — — <1.00 1 — — — Perching Bird — — — — — — — — 3.00 18 6.00 4 — — — — — — Turkey-sized Bird 374 14.00 92 4.00 3 4.00 1 — — — 11.00 12 14.00 4 Chicken-sized Bird Table 48. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Birds) Quail- or Dovesized Bird <1.00 2 — — — 2.00 6 — — — Robin-sized Bird — — — — — — — — Bird, Size Indeterminate <1.00 2 22.00 15 — — — — — — Bird Eggshell — — — — — — — — Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Gallinaceous Birds <1.00 14 1.00 4 <1.00 3 1.00 4 — — — — Domestic Chicken 9.00 437 8.00 31 10.00 64 17.00 94 9.00 16 10.00 46 8.00 86 5.00 5 Wild or Domestic Turkey 4.00 184 5.00 21 5.00 29 6.00 33 10.00 18 4.00 17 3.00 36 — 1.00 61 1.00 4 <1.00 3 — 1.00 1 1.00 4 2.00 17 — Gambel's Quail Pigeons and Doves <1.00 3 — — — — — — — Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. % NISP Total % NISP Stratum VIIa–b % NISP Stratum VIf–g % NISP Stratum VIb–e % NISP Stratum VIa % NISP Stratum V/VI % NISP Stratum V % NISP Level/Stratum Zenaida Doves <1.00 5 — — — — — — — Rock Dove <1.00 1 — — — — — — — Perching Bird <1.00 1 — — <1.00 1 — — — — Turkey-sized Bird 5.00 225 9.00 36 10.00 64 5.00 30 11.00 20 4.00 18 3.00 34 1.00 1 Chicken-sized Bird 16.00 744 16.00 62 35.00 221 14.00 76 32.00 57 14.00 65 14.00 151 — Quail- or Dovesized Bird <1.00 11 <1.00 1 — — — — <1.00 2 — Robin-sized Bird <1.00 1 — — — — — <1.00 1 — Bird, Size Indeterminate 1.00 55 — <1.00 1 7.00 37 — — — — Bird Eggshell 28 1 20 — — — 7 — Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 375 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 49. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Very Small and Small Mammals) Level/Stratum Rodent Mice, Rats, Voles, and Pocket Mouse Lemmings Cotton Rat Squirrels Squirrel-sized Mammal Mouse-sized Mammal 1 — — — Level 1 NISP % 1 — — 4.00 4.00 Level 2 NISP % 5 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 5.00 Level 3 NISP % 2 5.00 Level 5 NISP % Stratum Ia–c NISP % Stratum II NISP % Stratum III NISP % Stratum IV NISP % 4 1 2 1.00 <1.00 <1.00 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 2 Stratum IV/V NISP % Stratum V NISP % Stratum V/VI NISP % <1.00 Stratum VIa NISP % 1 — — — — — — — — 8 — 13 — 1.00 Stratum VIb–e NISP 376 8 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Level/Stratum % Mice, Rats, Voles, and Pocket Mouse Lemmings Rodent Cotton Rat 1.00 Squirrels 1.00 Squirrel-sized Mammal Mouse-sized Mammal 2.00 Stratum VIf–g NISP % 2 — — — <1.00 1 2 <1.00 <1.00 — — — Stratum VIIa–b NISP — — — — — % Total NISP % 23 1 2 9 1 15 2 <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. Table 50. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Rabbit-Sized Mammals) Level/Stratum Rabbit or Hare Antelope Jackrabbit Rabbit-Sized Mammal — — — — — — — — 1 Level 1 NISP % Level 2 NISP % Level 3 NISP % 2.00 Level 5 NISP % 20 — — 1 1 — 11.00 11.00 — — 7.00 Stratum Ia–c NISP % Stratum II NISP % 1 4.00 Stratum III NISP % — — 1 2.00 Stratum IV 377 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Level/Stratum NISP Rabbit or Hare Antelope Jackrabbit Rabbit-Sized Mammal 4 — 2 continued on next page % 1.00 <1.00 Stratum IV/V NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 % Stratum V NISP % Stratum V/VI NISP % Stratum VIa NISP % Stratum VIb–e NISP % <1.00 Stratum VIf–g NISP — — — — — — 25 1 6 1.00 <1.00 <1.00 % Stratum VIIa–b NISP % Total NISP % Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 378 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Table 51. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Large Mammals) Level/Stratum Carnivore Dog or Coyote Dog- or BobcatSized Mammal Domestic Cat — — — — — 3 — — — 2 Level 1 NISP % Level 2 NISP % 3.00 Level 3 NISP — — % 5.00 Level 5 NISP — — — % 7 3.00 Stratum Ia–c NISP — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 — % Stratum II NISP % Stratum III NISP % Stratum IV NISP % Stratum IV/V NISP % Stratum V NISP % Stratum V/VI NISP % Stratum VIa NISP % Stratum VIb–e NISP 379 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Level/Stratum Carnivore Dog- or BobcatSized Mammal Dog or Coyote Domestic Cat continued on next page % <1.00 Stratum VIf–g NISP — 1 — — — — — 1 4 1 9 <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 <1.00 % <1.00 Stratum VIIa–b NISP 1 % <1.00 Total NISP % Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. Table 52. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 (Extra-Large and Indeterminate-Sized Mammals) Level/Stratum Pig Cow Sheep Sheep/ Goat 1 — — — Cow-Sized Sheep/Goat-Sized Mammal, Size Mammal Mammal Indeterminate Unidentifiable Level 1 NISP % 4.00 5 6 18.00 21.00 — — — Level 2 NISP % 6 9 5.00 8.00 — 2 — 13 9 8 4 12.00 8.00 7.00 4.00 — 24 2 — — 57.00 5.00 — Level 3 NISP % — 5.00 Level 5 NISP — % 18 — — 6.00 12 1 193 4.00 <1 69.00 4 — 3 Stratum Ia–c NISP — — — — % 44.00 — 33.00 Stratum II NISP — % 1 — — 4.00 8 10 — — 35.00 43.00 8 6 27 — 12.00 9.00 40.00 Stratum III NISP % 380 — — — — Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Level/Stratum Pig Cow Sheep Sheep/ Goat Cow-Sized Sheep/Goat-Sized Mammal, Size Mammal Mammal Indeterminate 7 145 4 16 237 40 13 1 1.00 22.00 1.00 2.00 35.00 6.00 2.00 <1.00 — 71 — 1 4 1 20 — 1.00 4.00 1.00 19.00 10 258 142 7 1.00 24.00 13.00 1.00 3 232 5 1 1.00 51.00 1.00 <1.00 — 57 4 1 32.00 2.00 1.00 Unidentifiable Stratum IV NISP % Stratum IV/V NISP % 69.00 Stratum V NISP % 1 329 <1.00 31.00 — 63 — — Stratum V/VI NISP % — 14.00 — Stratum VIa NISP % 2 2 — — 1.00 1.00 17 39 — 2 126 30 40 — 3.00 7.00 — <1.00 22.00 5.00 7.00 — 1 1 — 9 136 74 14 — <1.00 <1.00 1.00 22.00 12.00 2.00 5 4 4 133 71 13 1.00 1.00 1.00 34.00 18.00 3.00 40 684 4 58 1,253 400 336 1 1.00 15.00 <1.00 1.00 27.00 9.00 7.00 <1.00 Stratum VIb–e NISP % Stratum VIf–g NISP % Stratum VIIa–b NISP % — — Total NISP % Note: % = percentage of all remains recovered from that level or stratum. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 381 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 53. Minimum Number of Individuals for Bird and Rabbit Taxa from Blocks 254 and 255 Feature Common Name 518 531 623 746 750 752 3040 3042 3340 3364 10214 734a Dabbling ducks and teals 1 — — — — — — — — — — — Domestic chicken — 2 1 1 3 3 7 38 1 3 2 1 Wild or domestic turkey — — — — 1 — 2 10 1 — 1 — Gambel’s quail — — — — — — 2 8 — — — 1 Zenaida doves — — — — — — 3 1 — — 1 — Mourning dove — — — — — — 2 — — — — — Rock dove — — — — — 1 1 1 — 1 — — White-winged dove — — — — — — — 1 — — — Rabbit or hare — — — — — 1 2 2 1 — — 1 Cottontail — — — — — — 1 1 1 — — 2 Hare — — — — — — — 2 — — — — Black-tailed jackrabbit — — — — — — 1 — — — — — Antelope jackrabbit — — — — — — — 1 — — — — Total 1 2 1 1 4 5 21 64 5 4 4 5 a Block 255 Table 54. Faunal Remains from Block 254, Lot 6 Common Name Feature 79 NISP NISP Total for Lot 6 % NISP % Domestic chicken — 19 14 19 12 Chicken-sized bird — 16 12 16 10 Bird, size indeterminate — 103 74 103 63 Cow-sized mammal — 2 1 2 1 1 25 15 141 165 Sheep/goat-sized mammal 24 Total 24 Note: Does not include Feature 3042. 382 Feature 623 % 100 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Table 55. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Cesspit 3042, Block 254, Lot 6 Common Name Stratum IV MNI NISP Wt. (g) Wt. (%) Eastern oyster 1 1 88.90 98.9 Oyster 1 4 1.00 1.1 2 5 89.90 100.0 0.04 0.09 Total Density (per cubic foot) 1.59 Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. Table 56. Identified Makers’ Marks in Cess Pit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7 Manufacturer Country Of Origin Stratum Date Reference United States Stratum II 1910 Lehner 1988:180 United Kingdom Stratum II ca. 1900 Godden 1964:355 Edwin Knowles Company United States Stratum II 1920–1963 Lehner 1988:237 J. A. Bauer Pottery Company United States Stratum II ca. 1940 Lehner 1988:39 Homer Laughlin United States Stratum II 1921 Lehner 1988:246 Homer Laughlin United States Stratum II, XII, XIII 1890–1900 Lehner 1988:246 “Made in Japan” Japan Stratum II after 1902 Bibb 2007:5 Vernon California United States Stratum II 1936–1958 Chipman 2002 United Kingdom Stratum II 1914–1925 Marks4ceramics.com United States Stratum V, VIII ca. 1900–1902 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:45 United Kingdom Stratum XII after 1891 Godden 1964:11 Greenwood China Company Johnson Brothers, LTD W. H. Grindley and Company Sterling China Company J. G. Meakin United Kingdom Stratum XII after 1890 Godden 1964:427 Bridgewood and Son United Kingdom Stratum XII ca. 1891 Godden 1964:102 A. J. Wilkinson United Kingdom Stratum XII ca. 1891 Godden 1964:672 John Wylie and Son United States Stratum XIII 1880–1888 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:73 McNicol, Burton and Company United States Stratum XIII 1869–1892 Gates and Ormerod 1982:184 France Stratum XIVa–d 1888–1896 Marks4ceramics.com Haviland and Company 383 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 57. Medicine Bottle Summary for Cesspit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7 Dates of Production Product Use Reference Penslar Company/Chemists Kansas City, Missouri 1907–1965 unknown Fike 2006:176 3 Vicks Vaporub Greensboro, North Carolina 1898–present respiratory medicine Hinds-Brown 2002:2 II 1 Mentholatum/Wichita, Kansas, New York, New York 1889–present topical ointment, respiratory aide Fike 2006:83 II 1 Owl Drug Company United States 1892–1933 container, unknown contents Fike 2006:72 II 1 Parke Davis and Company Detroit, Michigan 1875–present container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:417 II 2 Standard Glass Company Marion, Indiana 1920–1930 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:87 II 1 Illinois Glass Company Alton, Illinois 1915–1929 container, unknown contents Toulouse 1971:264 II 1 Illinois Pacific Glass Company San Francisco, California 1902–1925 container, unknown contents Whitten 2009 II 1 Listerine/Lambert Pharmaceutical Company/East St. Louis, Illinois 1894–1915 oral antiseptic rinse Fike 2006:67 V 1 E. R. Clarke unknown unknown container, unknown contents V 1 St. Jakob’s Oil Baltimore, Maryland 1878–1919 external pain medication Fike 2006:195–196 V 1 Coswell Hazard Company United States 1868–1888 unknown Fike 2006:55 V 1 Eno’s Fruit Salt York, United Kingdom 1900–1920 gastrointestinal, “buckshot” medicine Fike 2006:161 X 1 Smith’s Bile Beans St. Louis, Missouri 1879–1942 bile reduction treatment Fike 2006:181 X 1 Castor Oil in Welch’s Grape Juice bottle/Tucson, Arizona 1869–present gastrointestinal Zumwalt 1980:421 XI 1 Perunia/ Dr. Samuel B. Hartman and Company/United States 1877–1948 catarrh treatment Fike 2006:62 XII 3 Obear-Nestor Glass Company East St. Louis, Illinois 1915–1980 container, unknown contents Whitten 2009 XII, XIII 4 Simmon’s Liver Regulator United States 1868–1930 liver medication Fike 2006:83 XVI 1 Kilmer’s Swamp Root Binghamton, New York 1881–1985+ kidney, liver, bladder treatment Fike 2006:209 Stratum MVC Manufacturer/ Product II 1 II 384 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Table 58. Faunal Remains from Block 254, Lot 7 Common Name Feature 518 NISP Feature 531 % NISP Feature 947 % NISP % Lot 7 NISP % Domestic chicken 1 1 6 19 — 7 3 Chicken-sized bird 2 2 15 4 — 17 7 Squirrel-sized mammal — 3 2 — 3 1 Rabbit-sized mammal — 1 1 — 1 <1 2 1 — 4 2 66 38 1 67 26 Pig Cow 2 2 — 100 Sheep/goat 2 2 — — 2 1 Sheep 1 1 — — 1 <1 91 90 22 13 — 113 44 2 2 1 1 — 3 1 23 — 39 15 Cow-sized mammal Sheep/goat-sized mammal Mammal, size indeterminate — 39 Total 101 155 1 100 100 257 Bird eggshell — 17 4 21 Note: Does not include Feature 3040. Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 385 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 59. Faunal Remains from Cesspit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7 Common Name Stratum II NISP Stratum III % NISP % Stratum V NISP % Stratum VII NISP % Stratum VIII NISP Cod — — — — — Pacific mackerel — — — — 1 Barracudas — — — — Jackmackerel — — — Bony fish — — 1 Frog or toad — — Rattlesnake 4 1 % Stratum IX NISP % Stratum X NISP Stratum XI % NISP % Stratum XII NISP % Stratum XIII NISP % Stratum XIVa–d NISP — — — — — 3 <1 — — — — — 4 1 — 3 — — 1 — 1 <1 — — — — — — — — — — — 1 <1 45 — — — — — 1 — 2 1 — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 <1 — 3 32 4 7 3 Gallinaceous birds — Domestic chicken 9 2 1 Wild or domestic turkey 2 <1 Gambel’s quail 2 <1 1 2 Total NISP % 3 <1 — — 1 <1 — — 8 <1 — — 1 <1 — 47 2 — — 3 <1 — — — 4 <1 2 — — — 4 <1 4 3 11 — 77 3 — 3 2 — — — 31 1 3 2 4 — — 9 <1 1 — 6 — 1 1 — — — 25 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 1 1 3 2 — — — 4 <1 Zenaida doves 1 — — — — — 1 7 7 2 1 — — — 11 <1 Mourning dove 3 — — — — — — 3 3 2 1 — 2 — 10 <1 — — — 2 1 — — — 2 <1 — — — — — 1 <1 — 116 4 <1 7 5 2 3 55 3 1 1 % — <1 4 Stratum XVI NISP 3 Pigeons and doves 2 1 <1 % 4 2 Rock dove — — — — — Perching bird — — — — 1 <1 — — Turkey-sized bird — — 1 1 — 4 1 — 98 14 4 4 5 3 4 2 — Chicken-sized bird 34 7 3 6 6 — 11 2 — 182 25 5 5 4 3 43 18 4 5 — 292 11 Quail or dove-sized bird 3 1 — — — — — 9 1 20 19 — 3 1 4 5 — 39 1 Robin-sized bird 2 <1 — — — 3 — — 1 1 — 1 <1 — — 7 <1 Bird, size indeterminate 26 5 — 1 — — — — — — — — 38 1 2 <1 — — — — — — 1 — — 11 <1 — — — — — — — Rodent 6 1 1 1 11 2 13 2 1 6 — 2 1 — — — 2 <1 — — — — — — 1 <1 — — — — 1 <1 3 — — 3 <1 — — — 1 <1 Pocket mouse — — — White-footed mouse — — 1 Cotton rat — — — — — — — 1 Brown or Norway rat — — — — — — — — — Mouse-sized mammal — — — — — — — — 1 — — — — — — — — — 4 <1 — 18 — — — — 29 1 1 1 1 1 1 Squirrel-sized mammal 3 1 — 1 Rabbit or hare 5 1 — — — 3 Cottontail 2 <1 — — — — — — — — — — — 2 <1 Black-tailed jackrabbit 2 <1 — 5 5 — — — — — — — — — 7 <1 Rabbit-sized mammal 22 5 — 12 13 — 6 — — 1 — — — 44 2 1 1 3 3 386 3 1 3 2 Chapter 16 • Block 254, Lots 6 and 7 Common Name Carnivore Stratum II NISP Stratum III % NISP % Stratum V NISP Stratum VII % Stratum VIII % NISP NISP 7 — 1 43 9 — 7 Dog or coyote 1 <1 — — — — Domestic dog 1 <1 — — — — Dog or bobcat-sized mammal 20 4 15 31 — — 1 Domestic cat 16 3 1 2 6 6 — Pig 6 1 3 6 1 1 1 Cow 17 4 — — — 7 1 <1 — — — — — — — 1 — — Mule or white-tailed deer Sheep Sheep/goat Cow-sized mammal Sheep/goat-sized mammal Horse Mammal, size indeterminate Unidentifiable Total Bird eggshell — 7 % <1 Stratum IX NISP 2 NISP Stratum XI % NISP — 1 — — — % NISP % Stratum XIII NISP Stratum XIVa–d % Stratum XVI NISP % NISP <1 — — 54 2 — — — 1 <1 — — — — — — 1 <1 — — — — 6 — — 42 2 — — — — — — — — 23 1 — 1 57 2 2 1 <1 10 10 15 10 13 5 — 6 — 9 <1 2 2 1 1 2 1 — — 38 1 — — — — — — — 1 <1 <1 — — — — — — — 1 <1 4 1 1 2 1 <1 — 7 5 — — — 18 1 790 30 514 20 — 1 <1 1 — 152 31 1 2 25 24 5 33 322 58 29 53 147 20 25 24 22 15 58 24 4 5 — 61 13 24 50 35 33 8 53 89 16 14 25 145 20 1 1 57 39 43 18 1 1 36 1 <1 — — — — 41 8 — — — 88 2 <1 — — — — — — — — 106 14 553 56 720 104 — — — — — — — 1 — 10 % — 1 48 NISP — 5 489 % Total 1 2 1 Stratum XII — <1 1 % Stratum X — 16 9 Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. 387 — 16 1 48 7 10 — 10 6 — 4 39 — 16 14 86 3 4 — 244 9 — 2 2 — 4 <1 147 241 82 42 2,601 — — — — 12 388 — — — — — 1 Pacific giant oyster Oyster Speckled scallop Cone shell Florida fighting conch Total 0.01 1 — — — — — 1 — NISP Wt. (%) 1.27 89.9 100.0 89.9 100.0 Wt. (g) Stratum II 0.17 4 1 — 1 1 1 — — MNI 0.17 4 1 — 1 1 1 — — NISP 60.1 4.3 4.6 31.1 Wt. (%) 1.50 35.1 100.0 21.1 1.5 1.6 10.9 Wt. (g) Stratum V Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. 0.01 1 Eastern oyster Total density (per cubic foot) — MNI Crab Common Name 0.06 1 — — — — 1 — — MNI 0.06 1 — — — — 1 — — NISP Wt. (%) 0.23 3.5 100.0 3.5 100.0 Wt. (g) Stratum VIII 0.09 1 — 1 — — — — — MNI 0.09 1 — 1 — — — — — NISP Wt. (%) 0.10 1.1 100.0 1.1 100.0 Wt. (g) Stratum XI Table 60. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Cesspit 3040, Block 254, Lot 7 0.14 1 — — — — — — 1 MNI 0.28 2 — — — — — — 2 NISP 0.22 1.6 1.6 Wt. (g) Stratum XII 100.0 100.0 Wt. (%) Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest C hapter  1 7 Block 255, Lot 1 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Residential History: 37/45/47/49/51 Grossetta Avenue and 77 Miltenberg Street In 1889, the City of Tucson issued a quitclaim deed for Lot 1 of Block 255 to Charles Shibell (Figure 111). Shibell had been a deputy sheriff and sheriff of Pima County, and he would soon be elected Pima County Recorder; however, it appears that he held no posts at the time this deed was executed (see Biographies). In January 1890, Shibell sold Lot 1 to Bessie McMurrian, who owned it for about a year before selling it to Charles Rasmussen. It is unclear which of these owners built the first house on Lot 1, but the structure was complete by 1892 and can be clearly seen standing at the corner of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue in Figure 10. This building was located at 45 Grossetta Avenue and had around 1,200 square feet of space. Sometime later, a second 1,100-square-foot dwelling was added along the southern boundary of Lot 1, at 37 Grossetta Avenue. It was most likely Charles Rasmussen who constructed this second house, one of five rentals he would eventually own in the project area. Rasmussen died in 1901, and his holdings within the project area were all purchased in 1902 by Olga M. Walsh, who owned the property until at least 1930. The Northern Building The available residential history for 45 Grossetta Avenue is limited. No reverse lookup was available in the Tucson city directories before 1918, and the address itself changed around 1909 to 77 Miltenberg Street. Prior to the change of address, only two households are known to have lived there. Ben Bush, his wife Maggie, and their adult son Harry resided at this address between 1899 and 1901, while Ben and Harry worked as grocers for Wheeler and Perry at 38 to 42 E. Congress, less than ½ mile from the project area. William Hendry and his wife Sadie (Pitt) occupied the structure around 1906, during which time they had a male child (no name given on birth certificate) (Hendry 1906). Hendry was the chief engineer at Tucson Ice and Cold Storage Company, which was located just north of the project area. The Hendry’s also lived at 294 N. Stone Avenue in 1908, and they were living at 250 N. Stone Avenue in 1911 when their son died at the age of 4 from burns (ATBH BVS 1911). It is known from the federal census that Adolph Meyer, a proprietor of the Henry Till Bottling Company then operating on Block 253 of the project area, lived at 77 Miltenberg Street in 1910. Meyer, born in Brennan, Germany, died of tuberculosis at age 48 in November 1910. His death certificate listed his address as Tucson, but he died in Yuma. Because he had only been in Yuma for a few days prior to his death, he may simply have been passing through (ATBH BVS 1910a). It is also known from Sanborn maps (1914, 1919) and city directories that, sometime between 1914 and 1918, 77 Miltenberg Street was converted into a duplex. The eastern half of this duplex retained the 77 Miltenberg address but the western half became 49 Grossetta Avenue. For the next few years, the duplex was occupied by Southern Pacific Railroad employees as they cycled through Tucson, perhaps recommended by word of mouth from one occupant to the next (see Appendix D). In fact, the only resident with a nonrailroad occupation was a blacksmith named Richard Helms. Around 1923, the building was razed and a new duplex was constructed. This new duplex was located at 49 and 51 Grossetta Avenue and remained on the property until all buildings on Lot 1 were razed around 1959 (Sanborn 1960). 389 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest From 1924 until 1959, 49 Grossetta Avenue housed a parade of tenants (see Appendix D). Despite 5 years of vacancy, 17 different heads of household were listed during this 35-year period, including several bookkeepers, a postal carrier, a railroad clerk, a watchman, and a writer for Tucson Newspapers, Inc. However, only 5 of them stayed for longer than a year. Rose Mary Ewart, the manager of the Bungalow Bar at 31 N. Scott Avenue stayed for 2 years. Mrs. Nancy Duell and Mrs. Katherine Kelly both lived at 49 Grossetta Avenue for 3 years; their husbands were not living with them, and they may have been widows. Velma Curtis, a waitress at the Pioneer Hotel located just south of the project area, also stayed at 49 Grossetta Avenue for 3 years. Finally, Cyrus Winchester, a chef who worked for the El Conquistador Hotel—located along Broadway, 2 miles east of town—lived a total of 4 years at this address. The residential pattern of 51 Grossetta Avenue differed from that of 49 Grossetta Avenue. There were fewer occupants, but they tended to stay longer (see Appendix D). The widow Maude Wharton lived there for 3 years after her husband, Fred J. Wharton, a hotel proprietor, died of an abscessed tooth (ASBH BVS 1924c). Southern Pacific Railroad travel agent Virgil Frizzell occupied the residence for a time. Irma Tracy, the traffic manager at Levy’s Department Store in the late 1940s and early 1950s, was by far the longest resident of the duplex, staying a total of 7 years. The short-term tenants included retired people, widows, waitresses, and laborers. Three of these tenants worked within the project area: Charles Pollard, a Tucson Newspapers printer; Gilliam and Lulu Smith, proprietors of the Powder Puff Beauty Shop; and Jack Ryan, a foreman for Frank Craycroft Plumbing and Heating. The Southern Building Documentation of the residential history for 37 Grossetta Avenue was even more sparse than for 45 Grossetta. E. H. Reese, a telegraph operator for the railroad, lived there with his wife in 1897, and Alice Hayes and her family lived there in 1900. Alice was a widow, and she lived at 37 Grossetta Avenue with her three adult sons, one teenage daughter, and a roomer named Ernest F. Wyman, who worked as a fruit clerk. These are the only residents for which we have any information. By 1909, the house at 37 Grossetta Avenue was razed and a new building erected. This building, which was identical to one erected just south of it on Lot 6, was given the address 47 Grossetta Avenue and remained on the property until it was razed around 1959. By 1910, Leslie Lohse, a salesman at Steinfeld’s Department Store, was living with his Scottish-born wife Jessie at this address, where they remained until 1917. The Lohse’s third child, Leslie Allen Lohse, was born in January 1919. The child was noted to be their third, but second living offspring, so it is likely that at least one child was present during the time they occupied this address (ASBH BVS 1919). By that time, Lohse worked as a grocery manager. Most of the other residents of 47 Grossetta Avenue only lived there for a single year (see Appendix D). In fact, including the Lohses, only four tenants stayed longer than 2 years. Henry Hubbard, a cashier with Southern Pacific Railroad, was there for 3 years, and William Wise, a department manager with Sears Roebuck at 85 N. Stone Avenue, stayed for 5 years. Thomas Briggs, a miner, stayed the longest, living at 47 Grossetta Avenue from 1940 until the building was razed around 1959. The short-term residents included accountants, salesmen, stenographers, drivers, army recruiters, Hughes Aircraft employees, and mechanics. There were also railroad employees, including switchmen, cashiers, and train dispatchers. Short-term residents included Oakley Arial Snyder, who lived at the address in 1922. He was a young married man working as an auto trimmer when he met his end that year in an auto accident near Nogales (ASBH BVS 1922). His wife apparently moved outside the project area after that event. Mrs. H. E. Singleton, who lived at 47 Grossetta Avenue in 1933, may have been the wife or widow of Hobart Singleton. If so, she was described as Mexican but born in Tucson, and she had a son, Francesco, 10 years old at that time (ASBH BVS 1923d). Archaeological Remains Aside from features related to the two buildings on the lot, the occupation of Lot 1 left behind very few archaeological remains (see Figure 111). The northern house was represented by multiple sections of foundation (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building V), and each of the remodeling and replacement 390 Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 episodes may have been partially represented. Likewise, the remains of the southern building represented both the earlier and later structures built at that address (see Building F). The remains of several waste-disposal features were also recovered. Privy Pit 734, which is visible in Figure 10, was discovered on Lot 1, between the northern and southern residential structures. A second feature (Cesspit 738) was located directly between the two houses and may have been related to waste disposal for one or both of them. Perhaps this feature represented a transitional system between the original privy and the eventual installment of the city sewer after the turn of the twentieth century. It was associated with Trench 737, which contained a section of sewer pipe. This trench in turn connected to Trench 5173, which also held sewer pipe. Only two pits were discovered on Lot 1. Pit 740 was large and roughly circular, and it may have represented a borrow pit. Pit 4757 was a shallow amorphous stain and was either located in the backyard or under the footprint of the southern building. The razing of Lot 1 brought a final end to the residential period of the project area. After the houses were demolished in 1959, the property stood as a vacant lot until this investigation began. Biographies Shibell Charles A. Shibell (Figure 112) was briefly a property owner in the project area. He received Lot 1 of Block 255 from the City of Tucson in 1889 but sold it the next year to B. McMurrian. This appears to have been a speculative purchase after the area was opened for development, although there is no other evidence Shibell was involved in real estate. Shibell was born in St. Louis in 1841 and graduated from Iowa College. In 1860, he went to Sacramento, where he worked as a clerk in a general store. During the Civil War, he entered government employ as a teamster and arrived at Fort Yuma in 1862 (AR 1892; Chapman Publishing Company 1901). That year, he followed Union troops to the Rio Grande, by way of Tucson. He was with General Carlton, who captured Tucson and put the city under martial law, before moving on to drive Texas troops out of New Mexico (ADC, 23 November 1899). Shibell was transferred back to Tucson in 1863 (AHS 1908; AS, 1908), where he remained after the troops mustered out of service in 1864. For the next 10 years, he tried his hand at a number of endeavors in and around Tucson, including ranching, mining, farming, transportation, customs inspection, and the operation of a stagecoach station (AHS n.d. s; AR 1892). He was also involved in several building and loan associations (Chapman Publishing Company 1901; McClintock 1916e). In 1874, Shibell was appointed deputy sheriff under W. S. Oury (McClintock 1916e). In 1876, he was elected sheriff on a Democratic ticket and served 2 terms (Anderson 1995). As sheriff, his duties included not only keeping the peace and making arrests but also rounding up jury members and providing housing for the mentally infirm in his jails. In 1880, he appointed deputies Wyatt S. Earp and N. J. Babcock to the sheriff’s office in the newly formed boomtown of Tombstone. That year Shibell was reelected, but the election was contested over voting irregularities that involved extra votes, former Sheriff Oury, and Joseph “Ike” Clanton, who was later a participant in the OK Corral gunfight (Anderson 1995). Eventually Shibell lost in the Territorial Supreme Court and handed over his badge in April 1881. Afterwards, he acquired the Palace Hotel, renovated it (Tombstone Daily Nugget, 5 August 1881:3), and operated it until 1883. He spent the next 2 years in merchandising, but in 1887 Democratic Sheriff Shaw was elected, and Shibell once again was appointed deputy. Because of Shaw’s ailing health, Shibell soon found himself in the role of acting sheriff, and remained so until Shaw’s death (Anderson 1995). In 1889, Shibell was elected county recorder (the same year as his purchase of property in the project area); he held this position unopposed until his own death in 1908 (Anderson 1995; Buehman n.d. a). During his lifetime, Charles Shibell was married twice. His first marriage in 1868 was to Mercedes Sais, the daughter of a prominent Sonoran family (Buehman n.d. b). She was born in 1850, and at the age of 10 figured in a well-publicized incident in which she and an older woman were captured by Apaches during a raid. The girl was later exchanged for ransom (AR, 15 April 1931:6). She died at the age of 25, probably from complications of childbirth because her date of death, Christmas Eve of 1875, is the same as the date of birth for her last child, who was named after her (AHS n.d. t). Shibell married again in 1877 to Miss Nellie 391 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Norton, a native of Alabama (Anderson 1995; Chapman Publishing Company 1901). Fraternally, Shibell was a member of the National Union and the Ancient Order of United Workmen. He was also a charter member of the Arizona Society of Pioneers. He died in 1908 of dengue fever, at the age of 68 (Tucson Post Newspaper, 24 October 1908:5). Architectural Descriptions 37 Grossetta Avenue, Southern Residential Structure (Building F) This one-story, single-family dwelling, completed by 1896, was a Spanish Colonial–style vernacular building (see Appendix B [Photo Index No. 5]; see Figures 12 and 13) (Sanborn 1901–1904). The L-shaped residence was oriented west-east with the short leg of the L on the north side. Likely constructed of masonry, probably adobe but perhaps brick, the building had a flat roof with at least one interior chimney. Between 1897 and 1901, a low-pitched, wood-framed front-gabled roof was constructed. It had a wood-framed cornice and was sheathed in wood shingles. Between 1901 and 1904, a wood-framed bay window was added to the west facade. Additionally, a wood-framed porch with wood shingles was added to the interior of the L-shaped building on the north facade. A room block was constructed on the north end of the building with a stovepipe extending above the roofline. The building had been replaced with a second dwelling by 1909. 37/47 Grossetta Avenue, Southern Residential Structure (Building F) This one-story, single-family dwelling, constructed between 1904 and 1909, was vernacular Craftsman in style. Architectural analysis was based on Sanborn fire insurance maps (1909–1960) and historical photographs (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 7, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 63, and 65]; see Figures 14–18).The irregular-in-plan residence was oriented west-east, with the main entrance on the west facade facing Grossetta Avenue. Constructed of adobe, the building had a moderately pitched, wood-framed hipped roof. It had a wood-framed cornice, and the roof was clad in wood shingles. One interior chimney extended beyond the roofline. The building had wood-framed front and rear porches. The front porch had a wood-shingled gabled roof supported by large square posts and moderately overhanging eaves. Between 1923 and 1930, an additional wood-framed porch was constructed at the rear of the house. Its roof was clad in a noncombustible material. At the building’s far northeast corner an adobe room block was constructed. The structure had been removed by 1960. 45/49 Grossetta Avenue, 77 Miltenberg Street, Northern Residential Structure (Building V) This single-story building was constructed between 1890 and 1892, with four openings to the south (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 5 and 7]; see Figures 10 and 12–14) (Sanborn 1901–1922). Between 1896 and 1899, this single-family dwelling was a Spanish Colonial–style vernacular building. Located on the southeast corner of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue, the L-shaped residence was oriented west-east with the short leg of the L on the south side. Constructed of adobe, the building had a flat roof with at least one interior chimney. The main entrance may have been a corner entry at Grossetta Avenue and Miltenberg Street. Between 1897 and 1904, a moderately pitched, wood-framed hipped roof was constructed. It had a wood-framed cornice and was clad in wood shingles. A stovepipe extended above the roofline. Two woodframed porches with wood-shingled roofs were added; one was located in the interior of the L, and the other was placed on the south side of the building. Between 1904 and 1909, a small wood-framed porch was constructed at the corner of Grossetta Avenue and Miltenberg Street. Between 1914 and 1919, the dwelling was split on a north-south axis into two residences, creating a duplex. The wood-framed porch at the corner of Grossetta Avenue and Miltenberg Street was removed. The front entrance of the westerly dwelling appears to have remained on the west facade facing Grossetta Avenue, and the front entrance of the easterly dwelling 392 Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 was on the north facade facing Miltenberg Street. The now rear porches were reclad with a composite material. The building was replaced by a second duplex by 1930. 49/51 Grossetta Avenue, Northern Residential Structure (Building V) This one-story, multiple-family dwelling was constructed between 1923 and 1930, on the same location as the earlier northern residential structure for this lot (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, and 29]; see Figures 14–18) (Sanborn 1930–1960). It was vernacular in style and located on the southeast corner of Miltenberg Street and Grossetta Avenue. Constructed of adobe, the symmetrical duplex was divided on an east-west axis. The moderately pitched, wood-framed roof was hipped, and at least two chimneys extended beyond the roofline. Wood-framed porches were at every corner, and the roof was clad in a composite material. The front entrances faced Grossetta Avenue. The structure had been removed by 1960. Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building F (37/47 Grossetta, Southern Residential Structure) Building F (see Figure 111) was identified during mechanical stripping, and its subsurface features were mechanically excavated. These included four stone-and-mortar foundations (Features 4648, 4656, 4712, and 4749), all composed of coursed basalt blocks. There was also an east-west-oriented basement pit (Feature 5136), which abutted or encompassed all of the other features except Foundation 4749. The basement, of which only 3 feet in depth remained at the time of excavation, corresponded with the footprint of the building’s earliest incarnation. The two major north-south-oriented foundations (Features 4648 and 4656), on the other hand, had been placed within the basement pit to support the walls of the second building. The basement was irregular in plan view, measuring 48 feet long by 18 feet wide. An area of rubble at its east end was separated from the rest of the pit by Foundation 4648. This area of rubble ran the width of the basement, measuring approximately 13 by 6 feet in size, and may have been used as stabilizing fill during the construction of the foundation for the second house. The shape of the basement suggested that it may once have been divided into three rooms, with caliche balks and doorways between the spaces. The westernmost room was approximately 13 feet square, and the other two rooms measured 13 feet in width but were only 11 feet long. A small extension at the basement’s west end may have been a stairwell. In the middle of the central room was a subrectangular, 20-by-24-inch concrete pad (Feature 4712), probably placed there for a support post. The rest of the basement floor was earthen. The eastern room had a northern extension from its northwest corner that may have represented a second stairwell. Foundation 4656 ran along the west side of the possible stairwell and halfway across the width of the basement. A masonry feature (Foundation 4749), located about 9 feet north of the basement area, formed a right angle with legs running east and south. It is unclear what this feature represented. It is possible it was the northwest corner of the northern extension of the earlier dwelling. It also could have been the remains of the northwest corner of an outbuilding behind the later dwelling. Near this foundation was a pit feature of unknown function (Feature 4757). Building V (45/49/51 Grossetta Avenue, 77 Miltenberg Street, Northern Residential Structure) Building V (see Figure 111) was composed of six foundation elements and two copper pipes. It is likely that the extant foundations represented two distinct construction episodes, although there may have been some reuse of elements. The total surface area occupied by its constituent features measured roughly 42 by 34 feet. 393 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest One of the foundations was a north-south-oriented poured-concrete wall (Feature 5170). The wall was about 1 foot wide and appeared to have been constructed using a form, within which alternating layers of concrete and cobbles were laid. There was outpour visible at the bottom of the wall, and most of the stones were hidden by a relatively smooth face of concrete. This concrete face made it difficult to determine the inner structure of the wall, but there did not seem to be any formal coursing of the stone inclusions. The remains of the foundation sat on top of compacted silty clay loam, which contained cultural materials. It is possible that this feature represented the second construction episode, as its location corresponded with the eastern wall of the second building, as shown on the 1930 Sanborn map. However, the feature also corresponded reasonably well with an interior wall that appeared on the Sanborn map in 1919, when the first building was turned into a duplex. From the north end of this wall, a 2-foot extension ran east. Its shape suggested a sealed doorway that may have represented basement access during the first construction episode that was then closed off during the second. In contrast to the rest of the feature, the stones within this wall were clearly visible and coursed. Foundation 4622 abutted the southern end of Foundation 5170 and extended west. The feature was composed of two distinct components. The first component included the western 7 feet of the feature and was poured concrete with stone inclusions. The rough texture of the southern face indicated that the concrete had been poured against the surrounding soil rather than into a form. The eastern 5 feet of the feature clearly represented an episode of remodeling. It is likely that this area was once an access point for a basement, which was later sealed by expedient masonry consisting of uncoursed angular cobbles within poured concrete. The texture indicated that it too was probably poured against fill. Once again, it is unclear which of the two buildings this part of the foundation represented. It corresponded with either the southern wall of the first building or an interior wall of the second. The sealed basement access may indicate that the feature was originally part of the first building and then reused as a foundation in the second. An area of fill west of Foundation 5170 (Feature 5172) was bounded by a concrete-and-stone foundation on all but the south side. The shape of this feature closely matched the shape of the northern side of the second building (Sanborn 1930, 1947, 1949, 1952, 1957). The width of the foundation was between 1 and 2 feet, and the walls were composed of rough masonry, with large, flat stones and no visible coursing; the face was largely smoothed concrete. The foundation sat on red silty clay loam. The fill was only slightly compacted and may have resulted from the infilling of a basement. The relationship between Foundations 5172 and 5170 is unclear. Given the strong correlation between Foundation 5172 and the second building, as depicted on the Sanborn maps, this ambiguity may point to separate construction episodes and lend credence to the association of Foundation 5170 with the first house. Foundation 4640 bounded the west side of Feature 5172, although it was not strictly in line with the extant foundation segments. This feature was oriented north-south, measuring 3 feet long and 1 foot wide. It was constructed of stone and concrete and may have been part of the second house; it did not correlate with any of the features of the first house. Feature 5171, a foundation with a corner facing northeast, may have represented a porch attached to the first house. The foundation was constructed of stone blocks set in concrete that varied in width from 1 to 2 feet. The depths of the northern and eastern legs were significantly different. The east wall had a consistent extant depth of about 1.5 feet, and the north wall was much shallower and varied greatly along its length, with some sections only an inch or two below the ground surface at the time of excavation. Foundation 5169 corresponded to the west wall of the second house. Although its top elevations were similar to the other related features, the foundation extended only 2 inches below the ground surface. The feature was significantly different in several other ways as well. No stones were mixed with the cement of the feature. Also, two copper pipes (Features 4643 and 4644) ran the length of the feature, set in the cement. A 13/4-inch steel pipe (Feature 4765) was encountered during the excavation of a test pit at the northern end of Foundation 5170. The trench for this pipe would have been under the footprint of the first building and east of the second. The function of the pipe remains unknown. Cesspit 738 Feature 738 was a circular cesspit that abutted Feature 737, a brick-lined trench containing a ceramic pipe. It measured roughly 3.5 by 4 feet in plan view. The pit was of unknown depth, filled with concrete rubble and a few artifacts. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The feature was excavated by hand to a depth of 3 feet, after which a backhoe was used. The backhoe continued the 394 Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 excavation to a depth of about 15 feet, at which point it could go no deeper for safety reasons. The feature was identified as a cesspit based on depth and the association of a ceramic pipe. Although some concrete rubble was extant in the upper fill, the artifact density was generally low. Pit 4757 Feature 4757 was a northeast-southwest-oriented amorphous stain beneath the footprint of Building F; it was excavated mechanically. The feature was a shallow basin excavated into Natural Stratum II. It measured 3 by 2 feet and was only about an inch deep. The fill varied in color from black to greenish yellow, from pale buff to dark brown. Privy Pit 734 Feature 734 was an east-west-oriented subrectangular privy pit roughly 4.5 feet deep, identified during mechanical stripping. The surrounding matrix was compact caliche consistent with Natural Stratum II. The eastern half of the privy was not fully excavated and extended at least another 2 feet east of the end of excavation, disappearing below the wall of a modern building adjacent to the project area. The top of the feature was irregular, its excavated extent measured 5.5 feet in diameter, which was significantly larger than the regular rectangular shape evident in plan view at the bottom, which measured 4 by 5 feet. After the western half of the privy was excavated in arbitrary levels, each identifiable deposit was excavated as a separate level in the eastern half of the feature. The profile of Privy Pit 734 can best be described as a complex interleaving of multiple discrete depositional events, as well as broader depositional periods (Figure 113). In profile, the layers tended toward a highly concave shape, dipping down in the middle and up toward the sides. The stratigraphy of the feature was more complex than other privies on the site, with a greater variety of fill colors and textures. The deposits were roughly divided into several categories. The first was typified by brightly colored green fill of various textures (Strata IIb, IIIc, IVc, Vc, and VIc), as well as a high concentration of small or fragmentary artifacts. The second consisted of a dense layer of whole and deteriorated artifacts in a brown crumbly matrix (Stratum IIe), generally found below a green layer. Interpretations are that the alternating presence of these two types of fill represented discrete periods of use during the lifetime of the privy, in which the dark layer with large artifacts indicated solid waste that formed a surface upon which heavy refuse settled. The green layer above it may have been a phosphorescent, semiliquid sludge in which smaller artifacts became suspended after discard. The layer of solid waste was sometimes not visible in the profile as it tended to be much thinner than many of the other deposits. However, dense refuse deposits, found along the bottom of the green layers, always marked its nominal presence. In addition to these types of deposit were layers that were interpreted as related to privy maintenance. Ashy fill often was found in thick layers within the feature (Strata Ia, Id, Va, and VIa), indicating an intentional deposition that was probably meant to absorb liquids and control odor or pests. Smaller deposits of ash were also evident (Strata Ic, If, IIe, IIIa, and IVa), indicating isolated dumping episodes that may have represented fireplace, woodstove, or hearth-cleaning events. There were also large, thick deposits of clean fill (Strata IIId and Vb) evident throughout the feature, possibly indicating another form of privy maintenance. Thinner, smaller deposits of the same material (Strata IId and VIb), which usually were found along the sides of the feature, probably represented collapse or accidental deposition around the edges of the privy. This interpretation was supported by the larger, irregular shape of the feature near the top, which was probably the result of wall collapse during use life of the privy. Finally, there existed several layers near the top of the feature (Strata Ib and Ie) of a white calciumcarbonate material, interleaved with ashy deposits. The top of the profile (see Figure 113) represented the mechanically stripped surface of the site. Above it, the backhoe encountered a thick layer of the same white calcium-carbonate that may have been part of a cap of borax that closed the feature. 395 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses Artifacts were recovered from only one feature, Privy Pit 734. A total of 122 ceramic sherds from tableware vessels was recovered from this feature. The stratigraphy of Privy Pit 734 suggested a mass cleaning episode that resulted in the deposition of domestic items in a single stratum. This event was most likely followed by filling of the privy depression. The feature was composed of six stratigraphic units, and ceramics were found in all strata. Only 9 percent of all artifacts were recovered from Strata Ia–e and IIa–f, and 91 percent of ceramics were from the underlying four strata. The overall density of ceramic artifacts in Privy Pit 734 was 3.7 per cubic foot (0.10/m³), and the density of ceramics was greatest in Stratum IIIa–e (10.02 per cubic foot or 0.28/m³) and Stratum VIa–d (5.93per cubic foot or 0.17/m³). Stratum IIIa–e also yielded 52 percent of all ceramics, and 29 percent of all artifacts in this feature. Based on the large quantity of domestic and personal artifacts, Stratum IIIa–f may have represented a single cleaning episode. This episode was followed by the deposition of undifferentiated fill with construction debris in order to level off the privy shaft when it was no longer in use. Stratum VIa–d was the lowest level of the privy, and the comparatively large quantity of artifacts may have been the result of items sinking through the pliant privy matrix until coming to rest at the bottom. Datable ceramics on this block were in manufacture between 1846 and 1918, and the property was occupied from 1892 to 1959. Semivitreous and nonvitreous white-bodied earthenware sherds (n = 84; MVC = 37) made up about 69 percent of all sherds in this feature. Hardpaste porcelain (n = 22; MVC = 7) and vitreous white-bodied earthenware (n = 15; MVC = 5) sherds were the other major ceramic types. Sherds from plates (MVC = 13), bowls (MVC = 9), cups (MVC = 7), and saucers (MVC = 6) were most of the identified vessel forms. Twenty-three fragments were from at least 12 unidentified vessel forms. Makers’ marks on ceramic vessels in Privy Pit 734 indicated that wares on this lot were made in the United Kingdom and United States (Table 61). Like other features, most of the ceramic tablewares were produced by a small number of large potteries centered in the Staffordshire region of England and the eastern United States. The privy pit yielded 80 nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts from at least 21 individual items. Although artifacts in this category were identified in all six stratigraphic units in the feature, they were concentrated in Strata IIIa–e (n = 34) and VIa–d (n = 33). Combined, these two strata represented 84 percent of nonceramic tableware artifacts. Glass shards were the most-prevalent nonceramic tableware material, representing 85 percent (n = 68) of nonceramic tableware in this feature. The remaining 15 percent of nonceramic tableware and culinary artifacts were fragments from a single metal pie pan (n = 12) that was identified in Stratum VIa–d. Glass-tableware artifacts throughout Privy Pit 734 were mostly shards from tumblers (MVC = 9) and bowls (MVC = 8). All tumbler shards were colorless and 2 were jelly jars. Only 2 tumblers had a press-molded decoration. The 8 bowls identified were both press-molded decorative vessels (MVC = 5) and serving dishes (MVC = 3). Molded decorations were primarily geometric designs and the diamond pattern was most prominent. Fragments from a press-molded candy dish or sugar bowl set were identified in Strata III and IV, suggesting deposition of vessels occurred through time as items were broken. Other glass-tableware artifacts in this feature included shards from a small press-molded pitcher and 2 unidentified vessels. Privy Pit 734 also yielded a nearly complete Papago Red small jar or bud vase and a small collection of Native American sherds consisting of Papago Red (n = 4) and Papago Brown (n = 2) (see Appendix N). Privy Pit 734 held a minimum of 23 bottles, jars, and cans that once held foodstuffs or beverages, including 7 bottles, 3 jars, and 13 cans. Three bottle/jar closures were also recovered from three of the six stratigraphic levels. The food/beverage glass artifacts with identifiable technology were primarily machinemade. Bottles were recovered from all stratigraphic layers except the middle stratum. Evidence of at least 3 food bottles, 1 condiment bottle, and an olive-oil bottle were noted; others remain unidentified. A metal sauce-bottle seal was also identified. All jars had unidentified contents. Jars were observed in the uppermost and lowermost stratigraphic layers. At least 1 preserve jar and 1 commercially packaged food jar were found. One canning jar recovered from this feature was made by Mason between 1858 and 1912 (Toulouse 1971:345). One lid liner from a canning jar, made by Wellman Peck & Co. between 1890 and 1918 (Zumwalt 1980:424), was included in the collection. Cans were observed in all stratigraphic layers. Can contents remain largely unidentified, although at least 5 food and 2 condensed-milk cans were found. Most of the cans were hole-in-cap, but sanitary and hole-in-top types were also present. Food and beverage containers from this feature that were temporally diagnostic indicated deposition between as early as the first residential activity on the lot and 1930. 396 Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 Thirty-four fragments from seven vessels containing alcohol were recovered from the privy pit, 59 percent (n = 20) of which were from three distilled-spirits bottles. Thirty-five percent (n = 12) were from at least two beer bottles and 6 percent (n = 2) were shards from two wine or champagne fragments. No machinemanufactured artifacts were observed in this feature, but two fragments from Stratum IIIa–f bore characteristics of hand-tooling. The shards from Stratum IIIa–f included the kickup from a wine or champagne bottle and an unembossed beer-bottle fragment. All of the remaining alcohol-bottle fragments from this feature were recovered from Stratum VIa–d. The feature also yielded complete and fragmented clothing fasteners. Most of the fasteners were recovered from Stratum IIIa–f. Undecorated buttons made up the bulk of clothing fasteners in this lot, and men’s and women’s clothing were indicated. No clothing fabric was recovered. Buttons were recovered from all stratigraphic layers except Stratum IIa–f and included sew-through, cross-bar/D-hole shank, a uniform shank, fly buttons, and unidentified shanks. Sizes suggest use of lingerie, shirts, dresses, vests, pants, and suspenders. Snaps were recovered from upper stratigraphic layers. At least one safety pin of unknown size was in Stratum IIIa–e. Corset (clasps and eyelets) and garter (hook) hardware was recovered from upper stratigraphic layers. Privy Pit 734 also produced 132 footwear-related artifacts representing at least 9 shoes. One small, stacked-leather heel, possibly from a child’s boot, was recovered from Stratum IIIa–e. Two right shoes, 2 left shoes, 2 shoes of unknown side or size, and 2 child-sized shoes (one left, one unknown) were represented by the remains of stacked-leather heels recovered in Stratum VIa–d. Most of the leather was black, and original color could not be determined for the rest. Five of the six stratigraphic layers of Privy Pit 734 yielded personal artifacts. Most of the personal items were found in the middle to lower stratigraphic layers: Strata IIIa–e, IVa–d, and VIa–d. A Vaseline product jar dated from 1880 to 1955 (Fike 2006:56). One bone handle of a toothbrush was recovered from this feature. A large, black vulcanite comb was imprinted with “THE GOODYEAR VULCANITE CO”. Fragments of white rubber tubing recovered from this feature would have been used with hot-water bottles and fountain syringes for douching/enemas. Two examples of jewelry were recovered from this feature. A tin, sixpointed star may have been worn as a badge or lapel pin, and a brass T-bar with two chain links represented a pocket watch chain. The feature also contained medicine-related glass artifacts (n = 32; MVC = 21), recovered from four of the six stratigraphic levels in this feature. All but one of these artifacts was from medicine bottles or bottle fragments. Fifty-nine percent (n = 19; MVC = 14) of these artifacts were hand-finished vs. 6 percent (n = 2; MVC = 1) completely machine-made. The manufacturing technique was unidentified for 34 percent (n = 11; MVC = 6) of medicinal glass. Artifact density throughout this feature was 0.96 per cubic foot (0.027/m³). Medicine-related artifacts were concentrated in two strata. Stratum IIIa–e had a density of 1.88 per cubic foot (0.053/m³) and contained 38 percent (n = 12; MVC= 7) of artifacts and Stratum VIa–d had an artifact density of 2.31 per cubic foot (0.065/m³) and yielded 44 percent (n = 14; MVC = 8) of medicinal glass. Medicine bottles throughout this feature indicated the use of proprietary medicines alongside compounded pharmacy medicines, with an emphasis on respiratory treatments. Three respiratory medicines—Piso’s Consumption Cure (1864–1939), Perunia (1867–1935), and Dr. King’s New Discovery (1878–1948)—were identified in three different strata (Fike 2006:62, 104, 206). Dr. Miles’ Nervine (1881–1979), a restorative tonic, was also recovered (Fike 2006:190). A bottle made for Fred Fleishman’s Tucson pharmacy indicated purchases from local pharmacists in addition to proprietary remedies. Privy Pit 734 produced one sherd from a child’s porcelain teacup, one metal toy wheel, and eight parian doll fragments. A kaolin smoking-pipe stem fragment stamped “[GLASG]OW SCOTLA[ND]” and “MCDOUGA[L]” was recovered from Stratum IIIa–e of Feature 734. The Duncan McDougall Company produced kaolin pipes and marketed them in the United States between 1891 and 1968 (Critchley 2004:A-3–A-4). The feature produced part of a soapstone writing stylus in Stratum Ia–e, three pencil fragments and a slate fragment in Stratum IIIa–e, and a single slate fragment from Stratum Va–c. Weaponry artifacts included two cartridges recovered from Privy 734. The cartridge in Stratum IIIa–e was a .22 caliber with a corroded head stamp. In Stratum Va–c, a corroded .30 short cartridge was recovered. This cartridge was made by the Remington Arms Company after the company’s 1911 purchase of the Union Metallic Cartridge Company (Goodman 1998:n.p.). Two probable pennies were found, but they were too corroded for positive identification. One coin was excavated from Stratum IIIa–e, and the other was recovered from Stratum Iva–d. Four transportation-related artifacts were recovered, including a horse tack buckle identified in Stratum IIa–f, a horseshoe from Stratum IIIf–e, and a fragmented horseshoe recovered from Stratum IVa–d. 397 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest A total of 473 construction-materials and hardware-related artifacts was recovered from Privy Pit 734. Construction artifacts were recovered from all six stratigraphic units of this feature and were concentrated in Stratum Ia–e, which was the uppermost stratigraphic unit. Although the overall density of construction and hardware artifacts in this feature was 14.23 per cubic foot (0.4/m³), Stratum Ia–e contained 177 artifacts and had a density of 33.71 per cubic foot (0.95/m³). Construction and hardware artifacts in this stratum were mostly wire nails and nail fragments (n = 170). Complete nails in this stratum measured 3d (n = 1), 4d (n = 5), 5d (n = 6), and 7d (n = 2). The only other stratigraphic unit with a higher-than-average density of construction and hardware artifacts was Stratum IIIa–e (n = 98; 15.34 per cubic foot or 0.43/m³). Aside from Strata Ia–e and IIIa–e, the density of construction-material artifacts was relatively consistent. Constructionmaterials and hardware-related artifacts in Privy 734 were primarily wire nails and nail fragments (n = 388) and window glass (n = 38), which made up 90 percent of the construction-artifacts collection. Other artifact types included miscellaneous metal-strap fragments (n = 21), wire fragments (n = 3), metal plumbing pipe (n = 4), and electrical wire and wire insulation fragments (n = 2). Portions of a door-lock mechanism were also recovered. The two halves of a metal casting set were the only tools in this feature. Privy Pit 734 produced 316 artifacts relating to lighting and electricity. One of these artifacts was a small piece of woven fabric, likely insulation from an electrical wire. The rest of the artifacts were colorless-glass shards from lamp shades, mostly from Strata Ia and IIa, and a single, partial reservoir from an oil or kerosene lamp. The oil reservoir, recovered from Stratum VIa–d, was decorated with six-pointed florets in raised rectangular boxes on each of the side panels. Sixty-five colorless lamp-chimney shards from Stratum Ia–e bore a hand-crimped decoration along their upper rims. Over 80 colorless lamp-glass shards from Stratum IIa–f had embossed decorations. Nineteen colorless chimney shards from Stratum IIa–e exhibited the handcrimped edge, and a single chimney shard from the same level was decorated with a pressed pattern. About two dozen colorless chimney shards from Stratum Va–c were decorated along the rim with a molded design, and Stratum VIa–d contained a few colorless lamp shards decorated with a raised-knob pattern and one shard with a pressed design consisting of a ring of ovals around an inner ring of short lines. Five of the six stratigraphic layers of Privy Pit 734 produced household artifacts consisting of hardware, appliance parts, containers, and other household objects. A ferrous house-key fragment and fragments of a metal hanging bracket that may have held a roller-type window-shade hanging system were recovered. Stove parts consisted of fragments of mica oven window. Fragments of at least one sun-colored amethyst vase with a scalloped design were found, and laundry bluing balls were also recovered from the feature. Sun-colored amethyst glass generally was not produced after 1920 in the United States except for specialty bottles (Lockhart 2006b; Polk 2006). Excavators recovered a sizeable collection of animal bones from Privy Pit 734, although this is not evident from the avian MNI estimates, which totaled only two (see Table 53). Still, the feature produced slightly more than 2,000 pieces of bone and eggshell (Table 62). There was a relatively high abundance of fish bones, which accounted for approximately the same proportion of this collection as in Cesspit 3040, slightly less than 5 percent. Outside of these taxa, the collection was generally dominated by chickens and domesticated mammals, the usual pattern observed for faunal collections in the various features of the project area. The cattle elements in this feature were, unlike the collections from other large features, made up mainly of sawn ribs rather than vertebrae and pelvic cuts. Vertebral and pelvic elements, which are often used to form steaks, were decidedly rare within this feature. Another difference between the patterns of beef cuts found here vs. elsewhere in the project area is that large roasts were nearly or entirely absent. Instead, front and rear leg elements were sawn to sizes appropriate for small roasts and round steaks. A variety of roasts and steaks or chops were cut from the limbs, vertebral columns and innominates of sheep/goat and similarly sized remains. Although the production of such cuts was hardly surprising, what was remarkable was the presence of a pair of foot bones, for which explanation must be sought in period cookbooks. Numerically, the dominant cuts were from the rib cage, although we must admit that it is extremely difficult to differentiate animals of similar size from ribs, made more challenging by the fact that they were sawn. Therefore many of the ribs could also or alternatively have been from pigs. Interestingly, the pork cuts that were identified, all came from hind leg elements. These appeared to have been a mix of steaks, feet, bone ends possibly from roasts, and a large ham (femur). The collection from Stratum Ia–e contained most of the fish remains from the feature although none could be identified. It appeared that preservation of bones from this layer was generally poor because well over half the sample was unidentifiable beyond very general, class-level categories. Identified species included sheep/ goats and a few bones of birds, all from chickens or quails, or at least birds in those size ranges. The small number of bones recovered from Stratum IIa–e consisted mainly of bird (chicken-sized) bones, followed 398 Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 in abundance by bones of both sheep/goat-sized and squirrel-sized mammals. However, even if those small mammals were menu items, they could not have contributed nearly as much meat as did the domesticated animals such as sheep/goats or cattle, whose remains were also present. Thus the collection’s principal components were in reality, domesticated mammals. Stratum IIIa–f contained a collection of bones almost half as large as that from Stratum Ia–e, among the largest from any one stratum in the project area. Approximately three-quarters of the recovered bones came from cattle- and sheep/goat-sized animals, although none could be positively identified as being from one of those species. Other significant contributors included chickens and fish (flounders, herring, mackerel, and unidentifiable). Present in smaller numbers were bones of various rabbits as well as unidentifiable elements from dog- or bobcat-sized mammals. Most of the bone from Stratum IVa-d was identified as cow-sized mammal, chicken, or chicken-sized bird. A few bones from a sheep/goat-sized mammal and indeterminate mammal were also noted. Faunal remains from Stratum Va–c consisted mainly of three species, or rather, taxonomic groupings. These were chicken-sized birds, cow-sized mammals, and sheep/goat-sized mammals. The aforementioned bird bones made up somewhat more than one-third of the collection, with each of the domesticated-mammal categories accounting for around one-quarter of it. Other species included pigs, Coho salmon, an unidentifiable fish bone, and a bone of a small bird. Finally, Stratum VIa–d contained approximately 30 bones. Half of these were from mammals, most likely either sheep or cattle. Identified species included sheep or goats as well as cattle elements. Additional taxa present were unidentifiable specimens of a fish, and several bones from one or more small birds. Privy Pit 734, Stratum Ia–e produced several oyster shell fragments (MNI = 1), identifiable only to genus (Table 63). This stratum, in part, contained ashy fill; however, none of the oyster fragments was burned. The oyster may have originated from the West or East Coast. A single gastropod, identified only to taxonomic class, was recovered from Stratum IIa–f. The gastropod, a whelk or triton shell, may have represented food remains, have been part of a beachcombing or natural-history seashell collection, or have been attached to another shell and inadvertently transported to the site. Ten fragments of cockle shell (MNI = 1), identified only to taxonomic genus, were recovered from Stratum IIIa–e. It is unclear where the cockle might have originated as well as whether the fragments represented food remains. Considering that cockles are an edible variety and the feature contained other edible shellfish remains, it is possible the fragments represented food remains. Alternatively, the cockle may have been part of seashell collection. Macrobotanical analysis was conducted on samples taken from the six stratigraphic units in Privy Pit 734 (see Table 6). Ten taxa were identified, and the feature had an average of 5 taxa in each stratum. Most of the identified plants (n = 7) were food species, but 3 taxa of trees were also identified. Mesquite and raspberries were the only species found in all six sampled strata. Figs, elderberries, and indeterminate members of the Cupressus/Juniperus genera were present in at least four strata. Identified plants in Privy 734 provided data on the wood products and foods consumed within the household. Douglas fir and indeterminate Cupressus/Juniperus were woods historically used to build material culture and for construction. The presence of charred fragments of these woods throughout the feature was most likely the result of discarding unneeded products or scrap wood. Mesquite, native to the Tucson Basin and widely used as a fuel source into the twentieth century, was the only native species identified in this feature. Food taxa made up the bulk of the identified plants in Privy 734 and provided an insight into the culinary traditions of the historical-period residents of this lot. Raspberry, elderberry, and figs were ubiquitous in this feature and were also found in many of the other features of this site. Figs and elderberries also were valued for their medicinal properties. The remains of the common bean and corn were food staples that were also identified in this feature; these are New World domesticates long cultivated in the Tucson Basin (see Appendix .J). Wheat was also identified in Stratum Va–c of Privy Pit 734. Pomegranate seeds and the remains of an indeterminate member of the wild pea family were the other identified food plants in this feature. Chronology, Correlation, and Summary One historical photograph (see Figure 10) indicates that the privy associated with Privy Pit 734 was present by 1892 when the northern house was constructed. Whether it became a communal privy when 37 Grossetta Avenue was built is not known; however, temporally diagnostic artifacts suggested that the privy could have been used by both households until the neighborhood received sewer service in about 1900. The privy pit 399 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest yielded a variety of domestic artifacts representative of life on the lot during the early years of residential occupation. After about 1900, the pit was capped and abandoned, with upper layers containing a dense concentration of construction artifacts and architectural debris. The residence at 37 Grossetta Avenue was razed and replaced between 1900 and 1909, possibly accounting for the construction debris. The privy deposits were well stratified, with evidence of capping episodes separating artifact-rich layers. Unfortunately, temporally diagnostic artifacts yielded production dates that spanned the entire use life of the privy, so specific strata could not be assigned with certainty to particular residents. To further complicate the potential for strata assignment, both residential sites hosted numerous households during this time. Temporally diagnostic ceramic tablewares from this feature dated to earlier residential occupations. This could mean that the feature fell out of use before the end of the residential period, or that older ceramic vessels were curated and used in these households. Consistent similarities between ceramic vessels made by the same manufacturers provides insight into the domination of the tablewares market by a small number of firms and the width of distribution networks. Given a finite number of tableware manufacturers and their near control of the market, historical-period residents of the project area had a limited universe of products from which to choose. The presence of vessels made by the Homer Laughlin Company in nearly all large features in this site indicates that major potteries in the United States were taking a larger share of the American market by the early twentieth century. Homer Laughlin products appeared to have been widely popular within the project area and were easily obtained by most households. Included in the collection from Privy Pit 734 was a variety of glass tablewares and food containers that once held condiments and canned milk were also represented. Both home-canning and consumption of commercial preserves were represented. Only a few liquor containers were recovered; these consisted of two to three examples each of distilled spirits, wine/champagne, and beer. One vase fragment indicated production prior to 1920. A determination of household demographics for the lot was complicated by the rapid turnover of residents, but it is known that individuals and families with young and grown offspring lived there. Clothing artifacts included undecorated buttons, and corset and garter hardware. Three children’s shoes were identified. Personal artifacts included a jar that held a type of Vaseline merchandise produced from 1880 to 1955, and two pieces of jewelry that were not gender-specific. Three toys were identified among artifacts from the privy pit. One smoking-pipe fragment spanned the period of privy use. Although the business affiliations of many residents of Block 255, Lot 1 are known, no evidence was recovered that represented those activities. Medicines represented by containers in the collection included both proprietary medicines and those compounded by a local druggist, Fred Fleishman. Most of the preparations were used to treat respiratory ailments. Again, the remedies indicated production dates spanning the use life of the feature and could not be assigned to a specific household. Only a few transportation-related artifacts were recovered from the feature; all were related to horse transportation. Evidence of lighting included both oil and electrical lamps. One household activity, laundering, was represented by the recovery of bluing balls. The presence of the borax in the upper levels of the feature may have been to cap the feature at the end of its use life. An alternative interpretation is that it may have been deposited from a commercial laundry that sat adjacent to the lot. Privy Pit 734 appeared to have had a qualitatively different bone collection that set it apart from other features in the project area. One way in which it differed is that it appeared to have had a somewhat narrower range of species. Although it contained a relatively large number of fish bones from several species, the situation with birds was more or less the reverse. To be certain, there were a large number of bird elements recovered during excavations, but these came nearly exclusively from chickens or chicken-sized birds. In contrast to many of the other large features, no bones of waterfowl or doves were identified in this context. Similarly, the numbers of large barnyard mammals appeared lower in comparison to other contexts. In many of the other large features, animals like sheep/goats and cattle overwhelmingly dominated the collections. Those taxa contributed somewhat lower proportions in Feature 734. The principal explanation for this pattern seems to lie in the relatively poor preservation in this feature, because of either food-preparation practices or postdepositional deterioration. Overall, the feature contained a small collection of shellfish representing food remains and perhaps curios. Of note, each stratum yielded a different shellfish variety indicating that deposition of certain shell types in the feature was not consistent over time. The privy pit was likely used between approximately 1890 and 1900. Considering that the Pacific giant oyster industry had not been established on the West Coast at that time, the oyster fragments recovered from Stratum Ia–f were likely eastern oysters obtained either from the East or West Coasts. 400 Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 Macrobotanical data collected from Privy Pit 734 indicated that historical-period residents relied on plants long cultivated in the Tucson Basin for their dietary and, possibly, medicinal properties. New World food plants like corn, beans, and elderberries were parts of the Native American culinary tradition and were included in the subsequent Mexican and Euroamerican traditions. Old World domesticates, such as figs, pomegranates, and wheat, added breadth to the existing agricultural tradition. The selective combination of these foods had solidified into the southwestern culinary tradition by the end of the nineteenth century, as this feature demonstrated. Foundation elements of all three residences on this lot were identified; the foundation of Building F (or, possibly, the building that predated it on the same footprint) was made of basalt blocks. Also from the residential period were utility trenches and a cesspit that likely dated to the transition from privy use to sewer service. A borrow pit (Feature 740) may have predated residential occupation of the lot. The lot was never the site of commercial activities. The last residences were demolished in 1959, and the lot remained empty until the beginning of this project. 401 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Figure 111. Block 255, Lots 1 and 6, with adjacent Grossetta Ave. 402 Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 Figure 112. Charles A. Shibell, who owned Block 255, Lot 1, in 1889–1890 (photograph courtesy of the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, Accession No. 14971). 403 Figure 113. Profile of Privy Pit 734, Block 255, Lot 1. Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 404 Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 Table 61. Ceramic Makers’ Marks in Privy Pit 734, Block 255, Lot 1 Manufacturer Country of Origin Stratum Date Reference J. G. Meakin United Kingdom Stratum IIIa–e after 1890 Godden 1964:427 Henry Alcock and Company United Kingdom Stratum IIIa–e 1891–1901 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:89 Richard Alcock United Kingdom Stratum IIIa–e 1870–1881 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:92 Scotland Stratum IIIa–e 1846–1918 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:155 United Kingdom Stratum Va–c 1891–1907 Godden 1964:689 Homer Laughlin United States Stratum Va–c, VIa–d 1890–1900 Lehner 1988:246 Stubenville Pottery Company United States Stratum VIa–d 1885–1895 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:62 C. C. Thompson and Company United States Stratum VIa–d 1889–1910 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:63 Empire Pottery United States Stratum VIa–d 1885–1890 Kowalsky and Kowalsky 1999:34 Cochran and Company Wood and Son 405 406 — Pacific mackerel Cow-sized mammal 3 171 — Cow Sheep/goat — 2 Dog- or bobcat-sized mammal Pig 39 — Cottontail Rabbit-sized mammal — 5 Wood rat Squirrel-sized mammal 1 — Songbird-sized Bird, size indeterminate — Robin-sized bird 14 <1 <1 3 <1 <1 1 5 — — — — — — 10 — — — 1 — 10 Quail or dove-sized bird 16 31 3 9 252 — — — 7 4 4 — — — — 7 1 9 1 — 3 1 3 1 16 <1 — — 1 15 — — 5 — — 1 — 1 NISP — Chicken-sized bird 1 <1 3 <1 % 56 2 1 1 2 <1 2 <1 <1 3 1 <1 <1 % Stratum IIIa–f — — NISP — — 4 37 2 % Stratum IIa–e Turkey-sized bird Gambel's quail Wild or domestic turkey Domestic chicken Bony fish Flat fishes — — Coho salmon Rockfish — NISP Stratum Ia–e Herring Common Name 6 — — — — — — — — — — — — 2 — — — 3 — — — — — — NISP 8 85 4 % Stratum IVa–d 28 — 2 11 1 — 1 — — — — 2 — 25 — — — 1 1 — — — 2 — NISP 25 2 10 1 1 2 23 1 1 2 % Stratum Va–c Table 62. Faunal Remains from Privy Pit 734, Block 255, Lot 1 — — 8 — — 1 — — — — 2 — 1 — — — — — 1 — — — — — NISP 24 3 6 3 3 % Stratum VIa–d 462 3 10 11 10 44 5 10 5 1 2 10 12 55 1 2 1 8 54 5 2 1 2 1 NISP Total % 25 <1 1 1 1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 1 1 3 <1 <1 <1 <1 3 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest — Unidentifiable 25 58 18 % Key: NISP = number of identified specimens. Bird eggshell 1,201 694 Mammal, size indeterminate Total 216 NISP Stratum Ia–e Sheep/goat-sized mammal Common Name 20 32 — 2 10 NISP 6 31 % Stratum IIa–e 50 451 2 17 124 NISP <1 4 27 % Stratum IIIa–f 59 13 1 — 1 NISP 1 1 % Stratum IVa–d 23 111 — 37 NISP 33 % Stratum Va–c — 33 — 17 3 NISP 52 9 % Stratum VIa–d 177 1,841 3 730 391 NISP Total <1 40 21 % Chapter 17 • Block 255, Lot 1 407 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Table 63. Unworked Invertebrate Remains from Privy Pit 734, Block 255, Lot 1 Stratum Ia–e Common Name Stratum IIa–f MNI NISP Wt. (g) Wt. (%) MNI NISP Oyster 1 6 12.7 100.0 — Cockle — — Unidentifiable gastropod — — Total 1 6 12.7 0.19 1.14 2.42 Total density (per cubic foot) 100.0 Wt. (g) Wt. (%) Wt. (g) Wt. (%) 2.8 100.0 10 2.8 100.0 1.80 0.50 MNI NISP — — — — — 1 10 1 1 2.2 100.0 — — 1 1 2.2 100.0 1 0.16 0.16 0.35 0.18 Key: MNI = minimum number of individuals; NISP = number of identified specimens. 408 Stratum IIIa–e Chapter 18 Block 255, Lot 6 R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, and Tamara L. Leher Lot History The City of Tucson sold Lot 6 to Michael Bannon during the land auction in 1889. A month later Bannon sold the lot to Patrick McCoy, who held it until 1894 before selling to A. E. Carne. One month after purchasing Lot 6, Carne subdivided it into three 50-foot-square parcels. He then sold the northernmost of these parcels (the only portion of Lot 6 included in the project area) to Charles Rasmussen, who already owned and had developed the adjacent lot (see Chapter 17). Rasmussen died without developing Lot 6. Once Rasmussen’s estate had been settled, around May of 1902, Olga Walsh purchased all of his property in the project area. This included Lots 11–13 of Block 252, as well as Lot 1 of Block 255. For a time, Walsh left the northern third of Lot 6 vacant. However, between 1905 and 1909, she had the southern building on Lot 1 razed and in its place she constructed the residence at 47 Grossetta Avenue, one of two identical houses, each 829 square feet in size (Sanborn 1904, 1909). The second house, 45 Grossetta Avenue, was located on her portion of Lot 6. Walsh owned this property until at least 1930, and the house stood until 1960, when the structure was razed; no other structures were built on this lot between 1960 and the beginning of this project. As with other rental properties in the project area, the residence at 45 Grossetta Avenue had a diverse and fluid tenant population. Over its 50-year history, it was occupied by at least 22 households. Solomon Avina, who worked as a salesman for Sears, Roebuck, and Company, and later as a manager for Steinfeld’s Department Store, had the longest residential tenure at the address, living there with his wife Esperanza for 4 years between 1938 and 1942. Avina also resided for a time at 55 Miltenberg Street. Frederick Everett Price and his wife Elizabeth J. May lived at 45 Grossetta Avenue in 1922 through 1924, and their son, Frederick Bond Price was born at home there in 1923 (ASBH BVS 1923e). J. Swain Ayers and his 20-year-old son Ralph H Ayers lived at the address in 1928, but the younger man died at home of tuberculosis in January of that year (ASBH BVS 1928c); the elder Ayers continued to live at this location for a few more years. John Terril Slaughter and his wife lived in the residence during 1932 and 1933; their tenancy ended when John died at home at the age of 38 (ASBH BVS 1933d). Of the remaining tenants, many stayed for only a year (see Appendix D). These included a bus driver, a clerk, a service station operator, and a mechanic, among others. Those who stayed somewhat longer than 1 year included a mining accountant, a civil engineer, a writer, and a cook. The archaeological evidence associated with the northern third of Lot 6 was sparse (see Figure 111). Included were the remains of the house at 45 Grossetta Avenue (see Archaeological Feature Descriptions: Building E), a utility trench holding two sewer pipes and a steel water pipe (Trenches 5134 and 5135), and pit of unknown function (see Pit 5059). Also encountered was a large pit interpreted as a well (see Well 5061). The residential structure on this lot overlaid this feature, indicating that it was not used after the construction of the house in 1909. The well could have been used by the northern house on Lot 1 of Block 255, which was somewhat earlier than the other houses in that block and may have existed before city water distribution spread east of Grossetta Avenue (Sanborn 1901). No diagnostic artifacts were noted in the field for Well 5061, and thus there is no archaeological evidence that can be used to definitively date this feature. However, circumstantial documentary evidence suggests that the feature probably predated 1890, when the first houses were built in the project area. Perhaps the strongest evidence for this is an 1882 article in the Arizona Daily Citizen that discussed a well near “the old burying ground,” which posed a public safety hazard (ADC, 15 August 1882:3). The article strongly recommended filling or capping the well, a task that may have been accomplished many years prior to residential development of the lot. 409 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Well 5061 also may have been related to one or more residential structures that predated the platting of the project area and whose remains existed south of it. The 1889 Sanborn map showed multiple houses on the southern side of Cemetery Street, and there is a note in the minutes of the common council in 1876 (Village of Tucson 1871–1877) that discussed acquiring a house that “stands in Cemetery Street,” so that this street could be opened to public use. The portion of Alameda Street west of the project area was an older thoroughfare (see the discussion of Alameda Street for details), so this reference most likely relates to a house built close to the southern border of the cemetery. This feature may also have been a public well. Several were in use around the city prior to the development of the water-utility system (City of Tucson Water Department 2004:2–3), and there are references in the common council minutes that record their construction (Village of Tucson 1871–1877:62). The fact that it could not be closely affiliated with any particular structure supports this interpretation. Architectural Descriptions 45 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure (Building E) This one-story, single-family dwelling, constructed between 1905 and 1909, was vernacular Craftsman in style (see Appendix B [Photo Index Nos. 17, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 63, and 65]; and Figures 14– 18) (Sanborn 1909–1960). The irregular-in-plan residence was oriented west-east, with the main entrance on the west facade facing Grossetta Avenue. Constructed of adobe, the building had a moderately pitched, wood-framed hipped roof, a wood-framed cornice, and the roof was clad in wood shingles. One interior chimney extended beyond the roof. The building had wood-framed front and rear porches with roofs clad in wood shingles. The front porch had a cross-gable roof supported by large square posts and moderately overhanging eaves. Between 1931 and 1947, the building and porch roofs were resheathed in a composite material. An additional wood-framed porch was constructed at the rear of the house; its roof was clad in a noncombustible material. The house was demolished by 1960 (TCD 1960). Archaeological Feature Descriptions Building E (45 Grossetta Avenue, Residential Structure) Mechanical stripping of the area around the building exposed three features (see Figure 111). A partially intact stone-and-mortar foundation (Feature 5062) measured 28 feet long and about 2 feet wide. This would have been the west wall of the building. An area of construction debris (Feature 4721), was probably associated with the destruction of this wall. Lastly, a stain (Feature 5060) corresponded with the southern third of the building as it appeared on the 1909 Sanborn map. The stain was 22 feet long and 14 feet wide. This stain likely represented a basement or other subsurface feature. Pit 5059 A north-south-oriented subrectangular stain (Pit 5059) measured 28 by 24 inches, but it was partially obscured on its eastern and southern extents by the walls of an existing building east of the project area. The feature was not excavated because of safety considerations regarding its proximity to the standing walls. Mechanical stripping of the area revealed that the pit extended through Natural Stratum I and into Natural Stratum II. The feature fill was relatively sterile and slightly darker in color than the surrounding matrix. 410 Chapter 18 • Block 255, Lot 6 Well 5061 Well 5061 was an east-west-oriented subrectangular feature first identified during mechanical stripping, and measuring 63 by 41 inches. Because the feature was originally thought to be a possible grave, cemetery excavation protocols were followed, and the top 10 cm were excavated as an exploratory Level 1. At this time it was determined to be a postcemetery pit, and a bucket auger was used to explore the feature to a depth of 13 feet, which represented the auger’s maximum reach. The fill became sandy below 10 feet in depth, and a few small artifacts were found throughout the vertical extent of the unit. The feature was determined to be a well based on its depth, the paucity of artifacts, and the absence of matrix indicative of human waste. The feature was not fully excavated because of safety considerations regarding its proximity to the standing walls. Artifact, Faunal, and Macrobotanical Analyses No artifacts were recovered during archaeological excavations on Block 255, Lot 6. Chronology, Correlation, and Summary Temporal data for historical-period activities on Block 255, Lot 6, were drawn from archival sources. A residence was constructed on the property during the earliest years of the twentieth century; this house was razed between 1905 and 1909, and a second residence was built. The second residence was in the vernacular Craftsman style. Household turnover on the lot was great, with at least 22 households in residence. The longest tenancy, that of Solomon and Esperanza Avina, was from 1938 to 1942. Archaeological evidence of the residential period included fragmentary foundations, construction debris, and a stain that may have represented the location of a basement. Also identified were utility trenches and a pit of unknown function. A well on the lot almost certainly predated the residential development of this lot, and it may have been associated with an earlier house on a nearby lot or may have been a public well. Several public wells were in use around the city prior to the development of the water-utility system (City of Tucson Water Department 2004:2–3), and there are references in the common council minutes that record their construction (Village of Tucson 1871–1877:62). The feature (Well 5061) was tested by auger as deeply as possible. It was determined not to be a grave pit, and it did not yield any artifacts. The residential structure on this lot overlaid the well, indicating that it was not used after construction of the house in 1909. The well could have been used by the northern house on Lot 1 of Block 255, which was somewhat earlier than the other houses in that block and may have existed before city water distribution spread east of Grossetta Avenue (Sanborn 1901). However, circumstantial documentary evidence suggests that the feature probably predated 1890, when the first houses were built on the project area. It may have been dug as a public well near “the old burying ground,” which posed a public safety hazard (ADC, 15 August 1882:3). The article strongly recommended filling or capping the well, a task that may have been accomplished many years prior to residential development of the lot. Well 5061 also may have been related to one or more residential structures that predated the platting of the project area, and whose remains existed south of it. Once it was determined that the well was not a grave pit, it was not fully excavated because of its proximity to the standing walls of a building adjacent to the project area. Archaeological evidence of activities on this lot during the residential period was sparse, and all available temporal data were culled from archival sources. The lot was never developed for commercial use following the razing of the last residential building in 1960. Because of the number of households that successively occupied this lot during the residential period, and the paucity of artifactual evidence, little can be said about the tenants, their activities, or their material culture. 411 C hapter  1 9 The Postcemetery Component in the Joint Courts Complex Project Area: Summary and Conclusions R. Scott Plumlee, Shari L. Tiedens, William A. White III, Ashley M. Morton, Janet L. Griffitts, Justin E. Lev-Tov, Karen K. Swope, Carrie J. Gregory, Dorothy M. Ohman, Amanda C. Cannon, Kelly L. Jenks, and Tamara L. Leher Summary of Previous Chapters The investigation of the postcemetery period in the Joint Courts Complex project area allowed us an incomparable glimpse into the residential and commercial development of one neighborhood in downtown Tucson. Because we faced the potential of finding human remains across the project area, we were required to completely excavate all postcemetery features within and near the boundaries of the cemetery. Only in a few unusual circumstances located well outside the identified boundaries of the cemetery, and with the full agreement of Pima County, were postcemetery features left unexcavated. As a result, we obtained a complete picture of life in this neighborhood at the end of the nineteenth century and throughout the twentieth century. The methods necessarily employed in this investigation produced a much more complete record of an urban historical archaeological site than is usually the case. Consequently, much has been learned about the layout of household and commercial space in this historical Tucson neighborhood. Our examination of this neighborhood has contributed in an important way to our understanding of Tucson during its transition from a frontier outpost to a growing city, and as a destination for tourists and health-seekers. We have been able to compare life and commerce in this neighborhood with other neighborhoods in Tucson, throughout the Southwest, and elsewhere. Volume 1 of this study provides an analysis of our findings in the context of local and regional studies completed to date. The synthesis places the results of our investigation into the context of Tucson’s development through time. Treatment of the Joint Courts Complex postcemetery component in this volume included a presentation of the findings of our archival, field, and laboratory investigations. Archaeological data and archival resources were used in concert to substantiate previous knowledge, correct misinterpretations, and add to the data set of knowledge concerning historical-period Tucson. Archaeological data recovery of the postcemetery component allowed us to address the research questions posed at the inception of the project, as well as to explore additional avenues of inquiry. We have been able to elucidate the daily lives of site residents, including their material culture, use of space, occupations, leisure activities, and household demographics. The ethnic and socioeconomic composition of the neighborhood was similarly revealed through our investigations. Another research inquiry that has been clarified through this study was the transition from residential to commercial use of the project area; this information has been useful in our understanding of the development and urbanization of downtown Tucson. Our study was informed by the discovery of intact archaeological features that included building remnants, evidence of outbuildings, privy and cesspits, refuse pits and deposits, utility trenches, landscaping pits, and pet burials. Adjacent town spaces were developed much earlier by Tucson’s Hispanic residents, but because of the presence of the cemetery, land in the project area was not developed for residential purposes until quite late in the nineteenth century. In the mid-twentieth century, commercial activities and the demolition of buildings had a definitive impact on resources dating from the residential period; however, a surprising amount of evidence remained that was representative of early-twentieth-century residential life in the project area. In this volume, our findings have been organized according to historically recognized legal boundaries. Because street names and numerical addresses changed periodically, we employed divisions based on block and lot divisions. In cases where ownership or development warranted, the discussion of lots has been grouped to make interpretation easier. For each block/lot discussion, the history of ownership, residential occupation, and commercial use has been recounted, accompanied by pertinent biographical information 413 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest for major property owners and selected residents and businesses. A description of the architecture of the buildings that had been present and the archaeological features that were encountered on each property follows each historical narrative. For each block/lot, the text then relates the results of the artifact, faunal, and floral analyses, with artifact descriptions organized according to functional categories. Finally, interpretations of the historical and archaeological findings for each block/lot were presented as they were derived from archival sources, field data, and material culture analyses. Analyzing postcemetery land use according to block and lot divisions enabled the creation of a picture of life in various households and commercial enterprises over time. Our interpretations were complicated by a long period of rental occupation in many of the residences in the project area. In later years, some single-family dwellings were used as boardinghouses, and others were razed and apartments built in their place. Although archival sources were satisfyingly complete in their account of household demographics (including names, occupations, dates of occupation, etc.), it was in many cases impossible to relate specific households to archaeological strata or single-event deposits because of the rapid turnover of residential tenures. On some lots, only the earliest occupants’ deposition of refuse could be attributed with certainty. After the neighborhood was connected to the civic sewer system, less refuse was deposited in hollow-filled receptacles on-site. Nevertheless, material culture retrieved from intact deposits that could be attributed by block/ lot has proven useful in identifying neighborhood makeup. As will be discussed in detail in Volume 3, in this increasingly multicultural city, the best ethnic data were retrieved from archival sources; acculturation and the adoption of “other-ethnic” foodways and traditions blurred the focus of ethnic fingerprints in the archaeological record. This phenomenon in itself is of interest, and it has been possible to comment on that part of Tucson’s past on the basis of data collected during this investigation. Studies of material culture are considerably more reliable with regard to determinations of socioeconomic status, and this study has been no exception. Archival data led to an analysis of the socioeconomic standing of property owners, and the analysis of artifacts has allowed an interpretation of the socioeconomic standing of residents in the project area. Too, it was possible to trace the morphology of the socioeconomic setting in the project area over time, as the neighborhood became increasingly occupied by renters and boarders, rather than owner-occupants. At every turn, we have attempted to explore and report the historical, anthropological, and sociological forces that shaped this neighborhood. Several of these forces were discussed in Volume 1. The impact of the railroad played a critical role in the life of Tucsonans, including the residents of this neighborhood, and cannot be ignored. For instance, we found possible evidence of the collecting of Native American tourist vessels by railroad employees as they traveled through the Southwest. The comingling of cultures and ethnic groups is a hallmark of Arizona’s history, and in fact, history throughout the American Southwest. The archaeological record, as observed in the project area, has contributed much in this regard. The development and urbanization of Tucson was readily reflected in the infrastructure, households, and material culture studied as part of this project. Together, these studies have merged to create a picture of a vibrant community that changed rapidly in response to internal and external forces. In addition to learning about the lives of Tucson’s late-nineteenth- and twentieth-century citizens, we collected and analyzed data that was informative with regard to the treatment of human remains as they were encountered during the postcemetery period. Human remains were regularly encountered by both residents and commercial enterprises during the postcemetery period, and the behaviors that accompanied those encounters have revealed much about Tucson culture, world views, and society in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. As the area transitioned from a residential to a commercial focus, it was inhabited by fewer owner-occupants. Some residences were repurposed as offices and businesses, and eventually, residential structures were razed and commercial buildings erected in their stead. Archival research and archaeological data have added to our understanding of commercial enterprise in Tucson and the daily lot of workers in the project area. The first major commercial enterprise to monopolize the project area was the automotive industry, and the property was home to both automotive service and sales businesses. Gradually, those operations gave way to financial establishments such as banks. Throughout the commercial period, however, varied businesses operated in the project area as well, including a beauty salon, a restaurant, a billiard hall/bowling alley, and a night club. It was with its decline in value as a commercial district that its value rose as a potential location for governmental operations. To summarize the results of this volume, investigations on Block 252, Lot 1, revealed only foundations related to commercial use during the postcemetery period. The Baum and Adamson tire business renovated its original buildings and expanded during its tenure on the lot. It was, in turn, superseded by other automobile 414 Chapter 19 • The Postcemetery Component businesses, representing the only activity on this parcel from abandonment of the cemetery until the beginning of this project. Block 252, Lot 2, had one of the longest ownership histories in the project area, yet the Siewert family never occupied their property. The tenures of a series of renters were represented by house remnants, a privy, and a dog burial. The lot was later acquired by Baum and Adamson. Other businesses operated there as well and were represented by foundations and equipment used in the automobile service industry. Investigations on Block 252, Lots 3, 4a, 8, and 9 (4 And 9, north halves only), were informative as they comprised (together with adjacent Lots 5 and 10) the largest residential holding in the project area. The land was developed and occupied by the Brown family and their married daughter (Amelia Steward), who lived in neighboring houses. Archaeological evidence indicated that the lots were not divided into separate spaces, and in fact, the households shared waste-disposal facilities. Artifact analysis from these lots revealed much about the consumption and disposal practices of these rather well-to-do households. In later years, the properties were occupied by rental households. House foundations, a cesspit, and landscaping features were found that dated from the residential period. A variety of commercial enterprises, including part of the Baum and Adamson complex, ultimately operated on these lots, and were represented by structural remains. Block 252, Lots 4, 5, 9, and 10 (4 And 9, south halves only) were a continuation of the property developed and occupied by the Brown/Steward families. Archaeological evidence indicated that the households kept livestock; had subsurface building remains, a privy pit, and several refuse deposits; landscaped their yards; and buried their cats. Commercial enterprises on this portion of the project area included businesses specializing in plumbing, heating, electrical maintenance, sheet-metal suppliers, and the offices of an eggand-meat wholesaler. A portion of the Baum and Adamson conglomerate came to occupy a portion of this property as well. The residence on Block 252, Lots 6 and 7, was built and occupied by the Snyder family, but soon thereafter became a rental property like so many others in the project area. The residential period was represented in the archaeological record by small foundation elements, a privy pit (the only one in the project area to be fitted with a wooden liner), three cesspits, and two refuse pits. Refuse deposits on Lot 6 were particularly informative with regard to meat consumption. The lot also exhibited the remnants of landscaping elements in the form of a row of tree pits. After the residential period, the house served briefly as a tubercular sanitarium and later an office. Over the ensuing years, the commercial buildings that replaced the house accommodated the Old Pueblo Bowling and Billiard Parlor, the Bowyer Motor Company, a bank, and a mining office. In addition to foundations of the commercial building, archaeological features of interest from the commercial period included a grease pit, a bank vault, and a bowling-pin return pit. Three lots (11, 12, and 13) on Block 252 were considered together because of their joint development history. Houses on these lots served rental occupants from the time of their construction and were replaced during the 1920s with duplexes and apartment buildings. A privy pit and two refuse pits dated from the residential period on the lots, and they yielded information pertaining to consumption and disposal activities of the occupants. During the commercial period, a portion of these lots was used as a parking lot. No residences were ever constructed on Block 253, Lot 1. The ill-fated Troy Laundry was destroyed by fire shortly after its construction on the lot. The Seattle Brewing and Malting Company renovated the building and operated there for a time before the City Laundry Company began its 42-year tenure. Eventually, the laundry buildings expanded to cover the entire lot. Building remains were the bulk of commercial-period archaeological features. Marcus Aurelius Smith, one of Arizona’s first U.S. Senators, purchased the modest house on Block 254, Lot 1, and after multiple construction and renovation episodes, turned it into the largest residence to be built on the project area. It later became a rental property and was home to numerous tenants. Early commercialperiod use of the parcel included a used-car lot, a service station, and a parking lot. Finally, the Tucson Newspapers two-story basement was excavated on the entire lot, effectively erasing all earlier archaeological remains. Local dentist Whomes built a home on Block 254, Lot 2, and after a few years’ residence, the house was occupied by a series of owners and renters. The massive Tucson Newspapers building and two-story basement occupied the lot during the commercial period and accounted for most of the extant archaeological features. A privy pit was the sole remaining feature from the residential period; it contained evidence of use during the Whomes tenure in the form of a cache of extracted human teeth. Benjamin Fairbanks, one of the earliest owners of Block 254, Lots 4 and 5, used the property for livestock when he added it to his large holdings in the project area. Subsequent owners built five houses on the two lots, and a series of rental tenants established occupancy over the years. Oddly, the intensive residential 415 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest occupation on these lots resulted in little informative material culture; borrow pits and refuse pits on these lots were interpreted to predate residential construction on the lot, and it was not possible to assign the two canine burials to a particular household. One of the residences later housed the Powder Puff Beauty Salon. Development during the commercial period included demolition of the five houses and construction of Durazzo’s Union 76 Service Station. The house on Block 254, Lot 6, served continuously as a rental property, and the house next door on Lot 7 was occupied by owners during the early residential period. Connected cesspits and remnant house walls and foundations represented the residential period. Although the rapid turnover of renters made it problematic to assign strata in the cesspits to specific households, nevertheless, some consumer choice was represented in the material culture recovered from these features. The cesspit on Lot 7 yielded incomparable information regarding one residential episode in the form of purchase receipts for groceries and household goods. After the residential period, the two lots were occupied by a Pontiac sales and service dealership, and later a title-insurance company. Block 255, Lot 1, contained two rental houses that were home to numerous rental households throughout the residential period. Foundations and one privy pit constituted the archaeological remains from this period of occupation. The lot was vacant during the commercial period. Block 255, Lot 6, was a rental property with one house; a series of rental households lived there during the residential period. A portion of the house foundation was found during subsurface investigations. A well on this lot likely predated residential development in the project area. Addressing the Research Questions Our investigation has generally answered every research question that was posed at the outset of the project. This project area can only be directly compared to neighborhoods that were developed after the arrival of the railroad in Tucson. These comparisons must await future investigations of sites meeting that criterion, because most historical archaeological investigations in the city have been directed to prerailroad contexts. Nevertheless, this investigation has added much information to an important chapter of Tucson’s history, as well as providing a standard against which life in contemporary neighborhoods can be compared and contrasted in future studies. As discussed in Volume 1, analyses directed to this particular neighborhood have proven informative to the greater anthropological and historical understanding of Tucson. Much has been written about life in the American Southwest at the turn of the twentieth century. The tangible remnants of material culture retrieved as a result of this study have represented a snapshot of the time and place, but have also served to reinforce our understanding of the increasing cultural exposures of the period. Proximity to railroad connections promoted interaction with outlying areas in terms of commerce, information, and immigration. These phenomena were readily apparent in the deposits resulting from the postcemetery occupation of the project area. 416 R e f e r e n c e s C ITE D Adams, Karen R. 1988 The Ethnobotany and Phenology of Plants in and Adjacent to Two Riparian Habitats in Southeastern Arizona. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Arizona. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 2009b Plant Remains from Privy Pits, Trash Pits, and Other Post-Cemetery Period (1884–1960) Features at AZ BB:13:682 (ASM), Justice Courts Complex, Tucson, Arizona. Manuscript on file, Statistical Research, Tucson, Arizona. Albert, Lillian Smith, and Jane Ford Adams 1951 The Button Sampler. Collectors’ Library. Gramercy, New York. Allen, Paul L. 2001 Remains Unearthed. Tucson Citizen 15 December:B1. Tucson. Alpak, H., R. Mutus, and V. Onar 2004 Correlation Analysis of the Skull and Long Bone Measurements of the Dog. Annals of Anatomy 186:323–330. American Chemical Society 2010 The Bakelizer. Electronic document, http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_ pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=924&content_id=WPCP_007586&use_ sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=, accessed January 14, 2010. American Toy Marble Museum 2008 A Glossary of Marble Players’ Terms. Electronic document, http://www.americantoymarbles. com/glossary.htm, accessed October 2009. 2009 American Toys. American Toy Marble Museum, Akron, Ohio. Ancestry.com 2010 Genealogy, Family Trees and Family History Records. 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Toole Cannot Be Induced to Be a Candidate. 2 January:3. 1875 James H. Toole Has Commenced the Erection of a Large Building. 10 April:3. 1875 The Store Building of J. H. Toole Is Fast Approaching. 29 May:3. 1875 Local Improvements. 4 December:3. 1876 Election Results. 8 January:3. 1879 Hon. James H. Toole Has Resigned. 30 May:1. 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On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1923 Obituary for Mrs. J. K. Brown Jr. 26 May. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1924 Mrs. Breathitt Returns from Library Meet in Santa Fe, NM. 5 September. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1926 Mildred Steward Voted Queen of the Desert at the University of Arizona. 27 January. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1927 City Bakery is Sold to Puhls by Miltenberg. 26 May. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1928 Mildred Steward Was Awarded the Merrill P. Freeman Award. 19 May. on File, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1929 Frank Craycroft Claimed by Death, 10 May. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1929 Editorial on Rudolph Rasmessen. 15 August. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1933 Pioneer Woman Taken by Death. 16 July. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1934 Dr. Clyne Renamed as Club’s Leader. 15 May. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1935 Obituary for Mrs. Edith Monier. 25 February. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 419 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest 1940 Thomas Wills Dies at Home. 24 January. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1941 Rudolph Rasmessen’s obituary. 16 January. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1949 Head Librarian to Leave Post. 4 February. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1950 Graveyard of Last Century Startles Tucson Workman. 28 December:2a. 1954 Neva Stone Kelley’s obituary. 10 March. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1956 Frances Grossetta Dies in New York. 14 August. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1967 Dr. Clyne Dies at Age of 84. 16 April. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1969 46th Year Marked by B & A. 12 October. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1971 Food Brokerage Founder Gouley Burcham Is Dead. 3 September. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1977 Private Rites Today for John Murphey. 28 December. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. Arizona Historical Society (AHS) 1908 The Last Sad Tribute of Respect. Shibell Family Papers, Ms. 0728, Folder 9. Document on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1909 In Memoriam: Herbert B. Tenney. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1924a Librarian of Tucson Only Delegate of Baby State. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1924b An article about Rudolph Rasmessen’s term as mayor of Tucson. 30 November. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1928a Filed under Steward, Amelia/Fred. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1928b Live in the Same Home 29 Years, Stewards move to East Side. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1928c Rasmessen Is to Head Board. 30 December. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1933a Dr. Clyne Chosen Sunshine Leader. 18 May. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1933b Pioneer Teacher Claimed by Death. July. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 420 1943 Building in City Opened by Cochrane. 31 January. Tucson. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1953 Taken in Death: Former Librarian Dies: Mrs. M. D. Breathitt Succumbs following Long Illness. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. References Cited n.d. a Historical Notes. Christian Science Ephemera File. Document on file with the Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. c Filed Under Breathitt, John. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. d Filed Under Breathitt, Mary. Newspaper clipping on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. e Meade Clyne, biofile. 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Cochran, biofile. Document on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. r Biographical Notes. Hoff Family Papers, Ms. 1243. Document on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. s Clipping from Hughes Scrapbook. On file, Hayden File for Charles A. Shibell, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. t Charles A. Shibell Family Genealogy. Document on file, Hayden File for Charles A. Shibell, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. u Grossetta Family Papers, Ms. 0318. Document on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. v Alianza Records, Ms. 0597. Document on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. w Knights of Pythias records, Ms. 1325. Document on File, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. x Filed under Toole, James H. Newspaper clippings on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. y Probate Court Records Concerning the Estate of James Henry Toole. Document on file, Hayden File: Toole, James H., Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. n.d. z James H. Toole, biofile. Document on file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 421 Deathways and Lifeways in the American Southwest Arizona-Jerome Copper Company 1917 Stock Certificates for the Arizona-Jerome Copper Company. On file, Ms. 0092, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. Arizona Republic (AR) [Phoenix] 1892 Chas A. Shibell, of Tucson. August:39. On file, Hayden File for Charles A. Shibell, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1931 Article on the Abduction of Mercedes Sais as a Child. 15 April:6. On file, Hayden File for Charles A. Shibell, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. Arizona Star (AS) [Tucson] 1907 Mrs. A. V. Grossetta is Claimed by Death. 31 March. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1908 Charles A. Shibell is Numbered With Dead. On file, Shibell Family Papers, Ms. 0728, Folder 9, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1934 David Cochran 79 Years Old. 22 February. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1944 David Cochran Dies in Tucson. 13 January. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. 1997 Pioneer Landowner a Tucson Legend. 24 August. On file, Arizona Historical Society, Tucson. Arizona State Board of Health (ASBH), Bureau of Vital Statistics (BVS) 1895 Standard Certificate of Birth, Harold Julius Goldbaum, March 26, 1895, State File No. NA, Registered No. 1100, (Appears to be filed after statehood at an unknown date), Arizona Department of Health Services [ADHS], Arizona Genealogy Birth and Death Certificates [AGDC]. Electronic document, http://genealogy.az.gov/azbirth/399/399–1105.pdf, accessed January 11, 2010. 1903 Standard Certificate of Birth, Alejandro M. Bravo, September 15, 1903, State File No. NA, Registered No. 555, (Appears to be filed after statehood at an unknown date), ADHS, AGDC. Electronic document, http://genealogy.az.gov/azbirth/404/404-0479.pdf, accessed January 13, 2010. 1914a Original Certificate of Birth, Margaret Ada Ridgley, August 27, 1914, State Index No. 81, County Register No. 587, Local Registrar’s No. NA, ADHS, AGDC. Electronic document, http://genealogy.az.gov/azbirth/415/415-1215.pdf, accessed January 8, 2010. 1914b Original Certificate of Death, Sophia Siewert, January 15, 1914, State Index No. 240, County Registered No. 21, Local Registrar’s No. NA, ADHS, AGDC. Electronic document, http://genealogy.az.gov/azdeath/012/10121093.pdf, accessed January 8, 2010. 1914c Original Certificate of Death, Rosario Brena, January 18, 1914, State Index No. 244, County Registered No. 25 (or 215), Local Registrar’s No. NA, ADHS, AGDC. 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